{"id":15912,"date":"2026-07-15T20:39:53","date_gmt":"2026-07-15T13:39:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/?p=15912"},"modified":"2026-07-15T22:12:39","modified_gmt":"2026-07-15T15:12:39","slug":"descartes-mot-thoang","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/descartes-mot-thoang\/","title":{"rendered":"Descartes M\u1ed9t tho\u00e1ng<\/i>"},"content":{"rendered":"

DESCARTES M<\/em>\u1ed9t tho\u00e1ng<\/em><\/span><\/span><\/h1>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

T\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy, v\u1eady t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i<\/span><\/p>\n

Cogito, ergo sum <\/span><\/p>\n

(Je pense, donc je suis)<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

\n

Ren\u00e9 Descartes (31. 3, 1596 \u1edf La Haye-en-Touraine, Ph\u00e1p \u2013 11. 2,1650 \u1edf Stockholm, Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n, \u223c 54t).\u00a0B\u1ee9c ch\u00e2n dung (s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u 78 x 69 cm) n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a Ren\u00e9 Descartes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u01b0ng b\u00e0y t\u1ea1i B\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng Louvre, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecda s\u0129 Frans Hals (1581\/85 – 1666), ng\u01b0\u1eddi thu\u1ed9c th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 Ho\u00e0ng kim c\u1ee7a h\u1ed9i h\u1ecda H\u00e0 Lan, th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 1649.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n\"\"\n

D\u1eabu c\u00f3 h\u1ecdc thu\u1ed9c l\u00f2ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Plato v\u00e0 Aristotle, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh tri\u1ebft gia h\u01a1n tr\u1eeb khi ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a ra ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc c\u1ee7a ri\u00eang m\u00ecnh v\u1ec1 b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0o. Ch\u00fang ta th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 s\u1ebd h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2013Descartes<\/strong> (Quy t\u1eafc<\/em> th\u1ee9 3, Philosophical Writings of Descartes<\/em>).<\/span><\/p>\n

Ren\u00e9 Descartes th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u00f3 n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc cao m\u00e0 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng s\u00e2u s\u1eafc b\u1edfi v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u0111\u00fang l\u00e0 \u00f4ng v\u1eabn gi\u1eef nhi\u1ec1u t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng kinh vi\u1ec7n, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng do nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u1ec1n nhi\u1ec7m \u0111\u1eb7t ra, m\u00e0 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ho\u00e0n ch\u1ec9nh t\u1eeb \u0111\u1ea7u. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y ch\u01b0a t\u1eebng x\u1ea3y ra k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb th\u1eddi Aristotle, v\u00e0 l\u00e0 d\u1ea5u hi\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 tin m\u1edbi m\u1ebb xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc. C\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u01a1i m\u1edbi trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u1edf b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc l\u1ed7i l\u1ea1c n\u00e0o tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb Plato. T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc trung gian \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 gi\u00e1o vi\u00ean, v\u1edbi \u01b0u th\u1ebf chuy\u00ean m\u00f4n thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p \u0111\u00f3. Descartes vi\u1ebft, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t gi\u00e1o vi\u00ean, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 v\u00e0 th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m, mong mu\u1ed1n truy\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ea1t nh\u1eefng g\u00ec \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y. Phong c\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng d\u1ec5 hi\u1ec3u v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7u k\u1ef3, h\u01b0\u1edbng \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00f4ng minh tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi h\u01a1n l\u00e0 h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2. H\u01a1n n\u1eefa, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t phong c\u00e1ch xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc phi th\u01b0\u1eddng. Th\u1eadt may m\u1eafn cho tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i khi ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u00ean phong \u1ea5y s\u1edf h\u1eefu khi\u1ebfu v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u00e1ng ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi k\u1ebf th\u1eeba \u00f4ng, c\u1ea3 \u1edf l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba ch\u00e2u \u00c2u v\u00e0 \u1edf Anh, cho \u0111\u1ebfn Kant, \u0111\u1ec1u gi\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00e9t kh\u00f4ng chuy\u00ean nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong s\u1ed1 h\u1ecd v\u1eabn gi\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0o gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u0103n phong c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2015 Bertrand Russell<\/strong>, L\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn duy nh\u1ea5t (th\u1eadt s\u1ef1) m\u00e0 Descartes t\u1eebng tham gia l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn v\u00e0 sai l\u1ea7m (c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh); nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c phi\u00eau l\u01b0u c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c phi\u00eau l\u01b0u v\u1ec1 tinh th\u1ea7n; nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 chinh ph\u1ee5c ch\u00e2n l\u00fd.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014 Alexandre Koyr\u00e9<\/strong>, Introduction<\/em> trong Elizabeth Anscombe et al.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

L\u1eddi n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ea7u<\/em><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

(1) D\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n k\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a Descartes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 xem l\u00e0 r\u1ea5t “c\u00f3 duy\u00ean”, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi k\u1ec3 chuy\u1ec7n c\u00f3 t\u00e0i, thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c, t\u1eeb s\u1ef1 h\u1ecdc \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng l\u00fac \u00f4ng c\u00f2n tr\u1ebb \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ec1 t\u00e0i c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, khoa h\u1ecdc, r\u1ea5t truy\u1ec1n c\u1ea3m h\u1ee9ng. Nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec7n k\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng nhi\u1ec1u kinh nghi\u1ec7m s\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u00ecm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e1o c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng mang \u0111\u1eadm d\u1ea5u \u1ea5n c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. Nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec7n k\u1ec3 \u0111\u00f3, ngay c\u1ea3 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Discourse on the Method (Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p), hay nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m kh\u00e1c, kh\u00f4ng kh\u00e1c g\u00ec Cartesian confessions<\/strong>, nh\u01b0 h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 Alexandre Koyr\u00e9 g\u1ecdi. Ren\u00e9 Descartes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 s\u1eed h\u1ecdc c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1edfi x\u01b0\u1edbng “b\u01b0\u1edbc ngo\u1eb7t nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn” trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y. Husserl m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng h\u1ecdc si\u00eau nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t d\u1ea1ng “t\u00e2n Descartes”. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 ai mu\u1ed1n tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc nghi\u00eam t\u00fac \u0111\u1ec1u ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0m nh\u01b0 Descartes \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m: r\u00fat lui v\u00e0o n\u1ed9i t\u00e2m v\u00e0 t\u00ecm c\u00e1ch l\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed5 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ni\u1ec1m tin khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng l\u1ea1i m\u1edbi. C\u00f3 nh\u1eefng n\u00e9t t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed3ng v\u1edbi Kant. N\u1ebfu Descartes ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng t\u01b0 duy v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7t n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng cho khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, d\u01b0\u1edbi \u00e2n \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9c tin, th\u00ec Kant c\u0169ng ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a Denkart, c\u00e1ch t\u01b0 duy, mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u1eb7t si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng khoa h\u1ecdc.<\/em><\/p>\n

(2) T\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u th\u00eam v\u1ec1 <\/em>cartesian persona \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0ng sau t\u1ea5m m\u00e0n tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc uy\u00ean b\u00e1t \u0111\u00e3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00ean tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. T\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes di\u1ec5n ra tr\u00ean c\u1ea5p \u0111\u1ed9 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o-tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc-khoa h\u1ecdc-to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn. \u1ede Hoa K\u1ef3, Ren\u00e9 Descartes l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebfu trong c\u00e1c l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, khoa h\u1ecdc nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc M\u1ef9. \u00d4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y nh\u01b0<\/em> “cha \u0111\u1ebb c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i”, n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi m\u1ec7nh \u0111\u1ec1 cogito, ergo sum (“T\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy, v\u1eady t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i”). Descartes s\u1ed1ng trong Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c Genius, sau Galilei 32 n\u0103m v\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc Newton 47 n\u0103m. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c ch\u00e2u \u00c2u tr\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ti\u1ebfn l\u00ean l\u00e0m cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean r\u1ea5t v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i. T\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 n\u00e0y ph\u1ea3n \u00e1nh v\u1ec1 nhi\u1ec1u m\u1eb7t trong con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Descartes, r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng v\u1eeba l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, c\u0169ng v\u1eeba l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc, to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc. \u0110\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn l\u00ean t\u01b0 duy tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng m\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u00e3 m\u1ed5 x\u1ebb. <\/em>\u0110\u01b0a Descartes v\u00e0o gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u01b0\u1edbc b\u1ed5 \u00edch cho m\u1ecdi qu\u1ed1c gia. Descartes gi\u00fap sinh vi\u00ean c\u00f3 t\u1ea7m nh\u00ecn v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, Trung c\u1ed5 v\u00e0 Hy l\u1ea1p, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 h\u01b0\u1edbng v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng to l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i. Marx l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00edch s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e2u ch\u00e2m ng\u00f4n n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng: “De omnibus dubitandum” (m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 \u0111\u1ec1u ph\u1ea3i b\u1ecb nghi ng\u1edd), nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t nguy\u00ean l\u00fd c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u0169ng ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi ch\u00e2m ng\u00f4n c\u1ee7a Einstein \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi khoa h\u1ecdc: “\u0110i\u1ec1u quan tr\u1ecdng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng \u0111\u1eb7t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi.<\/em>” \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn nh\u1eefng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd d\u00f9 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn t\u1eeb h\u00e0ng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7. \u0110\u00f3 c\u0169ng ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n ho\u00e0i nghi Cartesian. Xem m\u1ee5c “Ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i t\u00ecm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd” d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y.<\/em><\/p>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u, t\u00f4i xin m\u01b0\u1ee3n nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi nh\u1eafn nh\u1ee7 sau \u0111\u00e2y c\u1ee7a Descartes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1eedi \u0111\u1ebfn b\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc<\/em> c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng:<\/p>\n

T\u00f4i c\u0169ng mu\u1ed1n b\u1ed5 sung th\u00eam m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi khuy\u00ean v\u1ec1 c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ecdc cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch n\u00e0y, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc ti\u00ean t\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ecdc nhanh to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch, nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed1n ti\u1ec3u thuy\u1ebft, kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i t\u1eadp trung qu\u00e1 nhi\u1ec1u hay d\u1eebng l\u1ea1i \u1edf nh\u1eefng kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n g\u1eb7p ph\u1ea3i, ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 c\u00e1i nh\u00ecn t\u1ed5ng quan v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp. V\u00e0 sau \u0111\u00f3, n\u1ebfu ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ecdc th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem x\u00e9t k\u1ef9 h\u01a1n, v\u00e0 t\u00f2 m\u00f2 mu\u1ed1n bi\u1ebft nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang, th\u00ec c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecdc l\u1ea1i cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch l\u1ea7n th\u1ee9 hai \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u00fa \u00fd \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh t\u1ef1 l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014 Descartes, \u201cLetter from the Author,\u201d The Principles of Philosophy<\/em><\/p>\n

\u0111\u1ec3 mong b\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ecdc c\u0169ng h\u00e3y \u0111\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 “nh\u1eefng trang ti\u1ec3u thuy\u1ebft”, ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u1ecdc theo ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1, ch\u1ed7 n\u00e0o ch\u01b0a hi\u1ec3u th\u00ec c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecdc l\u1ea1i sau \u0111\u00f3, ho\u1eb7c xem \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u. Nh\u01b0ng d\u00f9 sao t\u00f4i c\u0169ng hy v\u1ecdng b\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ecdc s\u1ebd c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Descartes l\u00e0 ai, c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cu\u1ed9c Khai s\u00e1ng Cartesian, <\/em>v\u00e0 b\u1ee9c tranh th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i \u00f4ng.<\/p>\n

C\u0169ng xin b\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ecdc tham kh\u1ea3o th\u00eam t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m d\u00e0y c\u00f4ng nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u “Chat v\u1edbi Descartes” c\u1ee7a h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 uy\u00ean b\u00e1c B\u00f9i V\u0103n Nam S\u01a1n.<\/p>\n

Xin c\u1ea3m \u01a1n.<\/p>\n

I<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"T\u1eeb thu\u1edf nh\u1ecf t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nu\u00f4i d\u01b0\u1ee1ng b\u1eb1ng s\u00e1ch v\u1edf<\/em>. (Descartes, Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>, Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng I, \u0110o\u1ea1n 4\/5)<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Tuy nhi\u00ean, t\u00f4i v\u1eabn lu\u00f4n tr\u00e2n tr\u1ecdng nh\u1eefng b\u00e0i h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng. T\u00f4i bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef (\u00fd n\u00f3i Latin, Hy L\u1ea1p) h\u1ecdc \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 r\u1ea5t c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi x\u01b0a; r\u1eb1ng s\u1ee9c h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn c\u1ee7a truy\u1ec7n ng\u1ee5 ng\u00f4n \u0111\u00e1nh th\u1ee9c t\u00e2m tr\u00ed, trong khi nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfn c\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng nh\u1edb \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 trong s\u1eed s\u00e1ch n\u00e2ng cao tinh th\u1ea7n v\u00e0 gi\u00fap m\u00e0i gi\u0169a ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n n\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ecdc m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u1ea9n tr\u1ecdng; r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ecdc nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch hay gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 tr\u00f2 chuy\u1ec7n v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u1ed7i l\u1ea1c nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u2013 qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c, m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c tr\u00f2 chuy\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb k\u1ef9 l\u01b0\u1ee1ng, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1c t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 ch\u1ec9 ti\u1ebft l\u1ed9 cho ch\u00fang ta nh\u1eefng suy ngh\u0129 hay nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd; r\u1eb1ng h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh v\u00e0 v\u1ebb \u0111\u1eb9p v\u00f4 song; r\u1eb1ng th\u01a1 ca c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 tinh t\u1ebf v\u00e0 ng\u1ecdt ng\u00e0o quy\u1ebfn r\u0169; r\u1eb1ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p r\u1ea5t tinh t\u1ebf, v\u1eeba gi\u00fap th\u1ecfa m\u00e3n s\u1ef1 t\u00f2 m\u00f2, v\u1eeba th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 gi\u1ea3m b\u1edbt c\u00f4ng s\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi; r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng nhi\u1ec1u l\u1eddi d\u1ea1y v\u00e0 l\u1eddi khuy\u00ean h\u1eefu \u00edch v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ea1nh; r\u1eb1ng th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn ch\u00fang ta c\u00e1ch l\u00ean thi\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng; r\u1eb1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc cung c\u1ea5p cho ch\u00fang ta ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ec3 n\u00f3i m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c v\u1ec1 b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0o v\u00e0 gi\u00e0nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00edt h\u1ecdc; r\u1eb1ng lu\u1eadt h\u1ecdc, y h\u1ecdc, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u00e1c mang l\u1ea1i vinh d\u1ef1 v\u00e0 gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi trau d\u1ed3i ch\u00fang, v\u00e0 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, \u0111i\u1ec1u t\u1ed1t l\u00e0 n\u00ean nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c n\u00e0y, ngay c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c \u0111\u1ea7y m\u00ea t\u00edn v\u00e0 sai l\u1ea7m, \u0111\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec1 ph\u00f2ng b\u1ecb ch\u00fang l\u1eeba d\u1ed1i.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014 Descartes,<\/strong> t\u1eeb Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>, Discourse on the Method\u00a0<\/em>(1637)<\/span><\/p>\n

\u0110<\/span>o\u1ea1n tr\u00edch d\u1eabn \u1edf tr\u00ean v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n m\u00e0 t\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n k\u1ec3, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Descartes vi\u1ebft trong Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em><\/strong> (v\u1eadn d\u1ee5ng l\u00fd tr\u00ed \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn v\u00e0 t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd trong khoa h\u1ecdc<\/em>) \u2013 Discourse on the Method<\/strong> (of rightly conducting one’s reason and seeking the truth in the sciences) \u2013 <\/em>\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1637, m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, v\u00e0 l\u00e0 quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean, sau Quy t\u1eafc h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 b\u1ea9m sinh<\/em> (Regulae ad directionem ingenii) l\u00e0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n sau khi \u00f4ng m\u1ea5t. Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p <\/em>l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m d\u1ec5 \u0111\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u01b0\u1eddng, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft kh\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Latinh, m\u00e0 b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Ph\u00e1p \u0111\u1ec3 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc c\u00e1ch suy ngh\u0129 \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, “ngay c\u1ea3 ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c”, ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng nh\u1eefng suy ng\u1eabm c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng n\u0103m \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u1eddi trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t “b\u1ed9 quy t\u1eafc \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c t\u1ea1m th\u1eddi” cho c\u00e1ch \u1ee9ng x\u1eed trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng, v\u00e0 th\u1ea3o lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 khoa h\u1ecdc g\u00e2y tranh c\u00e3i trong c\u00e1c l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c t\u1eeb v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ebfn sinh l\u00fd h\u1ecdc. N\u00f3 g\u00e2y \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng r\u1ea5t m\u1ea1nh l\u00ean t\u00f4i v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 h\u1ecdc. \u00d4ng tin r\u1eb1ng m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u00fang sai b\u1eb1ng “\u00e1nh s\u00e1ng t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh”. Nh\u01b0ng c\u00f3 l\u1ebd ph\u1ea7n n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> l\u00e0 Ph\u1ea7n IV, n\u01a1i Descartes \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t b\u1ea3n t\u00f3m t\u1eaft r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u1ec1 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m si\u00eau h\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, v\u00e0 gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u c\u00e2u n\u00f3i n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng Je pense, donc je suis<\/em> – ‘T\u00f4i \u0111ang suy ngh\u0129, do \u0111\u00f3 t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i’.<\/p>\n

\u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1ch t\u01b0 duy v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadn v\u00e0o ba l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c Quang h\u1ecdc, Kh\u00ed t\u01b0\u1ee3ng h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 H\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. \u00d4ng c\u0169ng ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng do nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc Fran\u00e7ois Vi\u00e8te (1540-1603) ph\u00e1t minh \u0111\u1ec3 bi\u1ec3u di\u1ec5n c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i l\u01b0\u1ee3ng s\u1ed1 \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft b\u1eb1ng a, b, c, \u2026, c\u00e1c \u1ea9n s\u1ed1 b\u1eb1ng x, y, z<\/em>, \u2026, v\u00e0 b\u00ecnh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng, l\u1eadp ph\u01b0\u01a1ng, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c l\u0169y th\u1eeba kh\u00e1c b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c ch\u1ec9 s\u1ed1 s\u1ed1 h\u1ecdc, nh\u01b0 x\u00b2, x\u00b3<\/em>, \u2026, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y l\u00e0m cho c\u00e1c ph\u00e9p t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1 d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y. Khi \u1edf Bohemia n\u0103m 1619, \u00f4ng c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t minh ra h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch<\/strong>, m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1 v\u00e0 c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1 b\u1eb1ng h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc. H\u1ec7 t\u1ecda \u0111\u1ed9 \u0111\u1ec3 bi\u1ec3u di\u1ec5n v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi quen thu\u1ed9c l\u00e0 t\u1ecda \u0111\u1ed9 Cartesian. T\u00ean \u00f4ng Ren\u00e9 Descartes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c la tinh h\u00f3a th\u00e0nh Renatus Cartesius, t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 th\u00e0nh t\u0129nh t\u1ef1 Cartesian. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m La G\u00e9om\u00e9trie<\/em> <\/strong>c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng bao g\u1ed3m vi\u1ec7c \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1 v\u00e0o h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc Cartesian ng\u00e0y nay. H\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng Cartesian<\/em> v\u1eeba c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u1ecda \u0111\u1ed9 trong h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, v\u1eeba l\u00e0 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes. T\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 c\u00e1c t\u1eeb gh\u00e9p tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh quen thu\u1ed9c nh\u01b0 Cartesian doubt (scepticism), Cartesian dualism, Cartesian Meditations (Edmund Husserl), Cartesian linguistics (Noam Chomsky), Cartesian rationalism, Cartesian product of graphs, … c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ebfn c\u1ea3 tr\u0103m t\u1eeb gh\u00e9p nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf.<\/p>\n

GI\u00c1O D\u1ee4C \u1ede TR\u01af\u1edcNG D\u00d2NG T\u00caN<\/span><\/p>\n

\u0110<\/span>o\u1ea1n v\u0103n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00edch d\u1eabn \u1edf \u0111\u1ea7u b\u00e0i m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Descartes \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng d\u00f2ng T\u00ean Coll\u00e8ge Royal Henry-Le-Grand t\u1ea1i La Fl\u00e8che n\u01a1i \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gia \u0111\u00ecnh g\u1eedi t\u1edbi n\u0103m 1606, l\u00fac \u00f4ng m\u1edbi kho\u1ea3ng 10 tu\u1ed5i, v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y cho t\u1edbi 1614, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 t\u00e1m n\u0103m. Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII, Coll\u00e8ge<\/em> l\u00e0 c\u01a1 s\u1edf gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c n\u1ed9i tr\u00fa do c\u00e1c gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i (\u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 D\u00f2ng T\u00ean) qu\u1ea3n l\u00fd. Tr\u01b0\u1eddng ti\u1ebfp nh\u1eadn h\u1ecdc sinh t\u1eeb kho\u1ea3ng 10\u201311 tu\u1ed5i cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi tr\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00e0nh (18\u201319 tu\u1ed5i), t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c g\u1ed9p c\u1ea3 c\u1ea5p 2, c\u1ea5p 3 v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng n\u0103m \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea1i c\u01b0\u01a1ng ng\u00e0y nay, trong khi hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i Coll\u00e8ge<\/em> l\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1eddng trung h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 s\u1edf (c\u1ea5p 2, d\u00e0nh cho h\u1ecdc sinh t\u1eeb 11 \u0111\u1ebfn 15 tu\u1ed5i).<\/p>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1eddng La Fl\u00e8che \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp n\u0103m 1604 b\u1edfi Henry IV (tr\u1ecb v\u00ec 1589\u20131610). T\u1ea1i La Fl\u00e8che, m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng tr\u01b0\u1eddng n\u1ed9i tr\u00fa danh ti\u1ebfng v\u00e0 nghi\u00eam kh\u1eafc nh\u1ea5t ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o thanh ni\u00ean cho c\u00e1c ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p trong ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7, qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i v\u00e0 t\u01b0 ph\u00e1p, v\u1edbi 1.200 thanh ni\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o cho c\u00e1c ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p trong l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1, t\u01b0 ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 qu\u1ea3n l\u00fd ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7. \u0110\u1ea5y l\u00e0 ng\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng m\u00e0 Henry IV \u0111\u00e3 giao ph\u00f3 cho nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c d\u00f2ng T\u00ean r\u00e8n luy\u1ec7n gi\u1edbi tr\u1ebb qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c Ph\u00e1p. Tr\u01b0\u1eddng cung c\u1ea5p m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c to\u00e0n di\u1ec7n v\u00e0 c\u00f3 c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean Ratio Studiorum<\/em> (Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc) c\u1ee7a d\u00f2ng T\u00ean, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng b\u1ed1 n\u0103m 1599 b\u1edfi c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 d\u00f2ng T\u00ean t\u1ea1i Collegio Romano<\/em>. Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh g\u1ed3m c\u00f3 h\u1ecdc c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n, \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o chuy\u00ean s\u00e2u v\u1ec1 ti\u1ebfng Latin, ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p, thi ca v\u00e0 h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n; tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc: nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh v\u00e0o tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Aristoteles truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kinh vi\u1ec7n; to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc: s\u1ed1 h\u1ecdc, h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc, \u00e2m nh\u1ea1c v\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd. Ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng ngo\u1ea1i kh\u00f3a: Di\u1ec5n xu\u1ea5t, \u00e2m nh\u1ea1c, khi\u00eau v\u0169, c\u01b0\u1ee1i ng\u1ef1a v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5u ki\u1ebfm. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n h\u00f3a \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y.\u00a0 V\u1ec1 to\u00e1n, Descartes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecdc s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Christopher Clavius (1538\u20131612) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0110\u1ee9c thu\u1ed9c d\u00f2ng T\u00ean, c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn. \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ec7nh danh l\u00e0 \u201cEuclid c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVI\u201d. Clavius n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi vai tr\u00f2 l\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200btr\u00fac s\u01b0 ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a l\u1ecbch Gregor hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i v\u00e0 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1eb7t n\u1ec1n m\u00f3ng cho to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc trong ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y c\u1ee7a d\u00f2ng T\u00ean. Clavius \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng g\u1eb7p Galilei, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem vi\u1ec5n v\u1ecdng k\u00ednh, v\u00e0 b\u00e0y t\u1ecf s\u1ef1 \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec Galilei \u0111\u00e3 quan s\u00e1t tr\u00ean b\u1ea7u tr\u1eddi n\u0103m 1609, nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 g\u00e2y ch\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ed9ng ch\u00e2u \u00c2u l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3.<\/p>\n

S\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c2u th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 t\u00edch c\u1ef1c trong gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c. C\u00e1c tu s\u0129 d\u00f2ng T\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn th\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o nh\u00e2n l\u1ef1c cao c\u1ea5p tr\u00ean quy m\u00f4 l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o tr\u00ean di\u1ec7n r\u1ed9ng. \u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e1ng ch\u00fa \u00fd l\u00e0 c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng d\u00f2ng T\u00ean kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh vi\u1ec7c gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c m\u00e0 c\u00f2n ki\u00ean quy\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y nh\u1eefng ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c h\u1eefu \u00edch nh\u01b0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd. Nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i, bao g\u1ed3m nh\u1eefng nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt ki\u1ec7t xu\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII nh\u01b0 Peiresc, Descartes, Torricelli v\u00e0 Mersenne, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 v\u0103n th\u1eddi Khai s\u00e1ng nh\u01b0 Condorcet, Helv\u00e9tius v\u00e0 Diderot, \u0111\u1ec1u theo h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00e0y. B\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch n\u00e0y, c\u00e1c tu s\u0129 d\u00f2ng T\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p \u0111\u00e1ng k\u1ec3 v\u00e0o ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c h\u1eefu \u00edch th\u1eddi b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd, ngay c\u1ea3 khi nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed5i m\u1edbi m\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u1ef1u h\u1ecdc sinh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd t\u1ea1o ra kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00fac n\u00e0o c\u0169ng h\u1ee3p kh\u1ea9u v\u1ecb c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd. C\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng d\u00f2ng T\u00ean th\u1eadm ch\u00ed c\u00f2n c\u1ea1nh tranh v\u1edbi \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Padua danh ti\u1ebfng, m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u1ea1nh tranh d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c c\u00e1c tu s\u0129 d\u00f2ng T\u00ean b\u1ecb tr\u1ee5c xu\u1ea5t kh\u1ecfi C\u1ed9ng h\u00f2a Venice. T\u1ea1i n\u01b0\u1edbc Ph\u00e1p theo \u0111\u1ea1o C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o, s\u1ef1 c\u1ea1nh tranh t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u0169ng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 c\u1ea1nh tranh gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng d\u00f2ng T\u00ean v\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i Jansenist. (Mokyr, 129)<\/p>\n

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Tr\u01b0\u1eddng La Fl\u00e8che 1695<\/p>\n

Lo\u1ea1i gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c m\u00e0 Descartes h\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c khai ph\u00f3ng<\/em> (liberal education) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i t\u1ea1i c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5 t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XII, XIII tr\u1edf \u0111i. Sinh vi\u00ean h\u1ecdc r\u1ed9ng, \u0111\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft t\u01b0 duy, \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 v\u0103n h\u00f3a cao h\u01a1n. H\u1ecd h\u1ecdc ng\u1eef v\u0103n (trivium) v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc, to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc (quadrivium). N\u00f3 kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi c\u00e1i h\u1ecdc tr\u1ea3 b\u00e0i v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 thi l\u00e0m quan. H\u1ecd h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 c\u00e1i m\u1edbi, \u0111\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft ph\u1ea3n bi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebfm, gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a tr\u01b0\u1eddng La Fl\u00e8che \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebfn Descartes t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t Tabula rasa<\/em> – t\u1edd gi\u1ea5y tr\u1eafng – th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 th\u00f4ng th\u00e1i<\/em>. Gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tu s\u0129 D\u00f2ng T\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00fap Descartes gi\u1eef v\u1eefng \u0111\u1ee9c tin C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o \u0111\u1ebfn su\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eddi; nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng l\u1ea1i ch\u1ecdn s\u1ed1ng ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi tr\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00e0nh kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u1edf Ph\u00e1p c\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o m\u00e0 \u1edf H\u00e0 Lan, qu\u1ed1c gia theo \u0111\u1ea1o Tin l\u00e0nh nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn nhi\u1ec1u c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o kh\u00e1c. \u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 trong \u0111\u1ea1o qu\u00e2n chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u cho C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o trong Chi\u1ebfn tranh Ba m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m c\u00f3 nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII, Ren\u00e9 Descartes. Trong th\u1eddi gian ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 trong qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf La M\u00e3 (1619-1621), Descartes \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ni\u1ec1m tin v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc v\u00e0o s\u1ee9 m\u1ec7nh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia. V\u1edbi s\u1ee9c kh\u1ecfe k\u00e9m, \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u1ed1 ch\u1ea5t l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00ednh gi\u1ecfi v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t trong binh nghi\u1ec7p. V\u00ec v\u1eady, \u201cnh\u1eefng tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn duy nh\u1ea5t (th\u1eadt s\u1ef1) m\u00e0 Descartes t\u1eebng tham gia l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn v\u00e0 sai l\u1ea7m (c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh); nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c phi\u00eau l\u01b0u c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c phi\u00eau l\u01b0u v\u1ec1 tinh th\u1ea7n; nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 chinh ph\u1ee5c ch\u00e2n l\u00fd.<\/em>\u201d (Koyr\u00e9, Introduction<\/em> trong Elizabeth Anscombe et al.)<\/p>\n

D<\/span>escartes sinh ra \u1edf La Haye v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y 31 th\u00e1ng 3 n\u0103m 1596, l\u00e0 con c\u1ee7a Joachim Descartes v\u00e0 Jeanne Brochard. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong s\u1ed1 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi con c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng (hai anh ch\u1ecb em ru\u1ed9t v\u00e0 hai anh ch\u1ecb em c\u00f9ng cha kh\u00e1c m\u1eb9). Gia \u0111\u00ecnh \u00f4ng thu\u1ed9c t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c v\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng gia t\u1ed9c l\u00e2u \u0111\u1eddi nh\u1ea5t trong v\u00f9ng. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng trong gia t\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e3 theo ngh\u1ec1 chi\u1ebfn binh cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1eddi cha \u00f4ng, Joachim, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00e0nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ee9c v\u1ee5 C\u1ed1 v\u1ea5n cho Ngh\u1ecb vi\u1ec7n Bordeaux. M\u1eb9 c\u1ee7a Descartes qua \u0111\u1eddi sau khi con trai b\u00e0 ch\u00e0o \u0111\u1eddi, ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn l\u00e0 do b\u1ec7nh lao. T\u1eeb b\u00e0, \u00f4ng th\u1eeba h\u01b0\u1edfng “c\u01a1n ho khan v\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc da xanh xao m\u00e0 \u00f4ng v\u1eabn gi\u1eef cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi h\u01a1n hai m\u01b0\u01a1i tu\u1ed5i”. C\u00e1c b\u00e1c s\u0129 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng s\u1ebd ch\u1ebft tr\u1ebb. Descartes l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb hay h\u1ecfi, khi\u1ebfn b\u1ed1 g\u1ecdi \u00f4ng l\u00e0 \u201cnh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng\u201d. (Paul Val\u00e9ry)<\/p>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi b\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0o Coll\u00e8ge Royal Henry-Le-Grand \u1edf La Fl\u00e8che, Descartes kh\u00f4ng theo h\u1ecdc b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc ch\u00ednh quy n\u00e0o. V\u00ec l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb y\u1ebfu \u1edbt v\u00e0 hay \u1ed1m, n\u00ean vi\u1ec7c gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng di\u1ec5n ra ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n t\u1ea1i nh\u00e0 d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c gia s\u01b0 ri\u00eang. H\u00e0nh tr\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u khi \u00f4ng v\u00e0o n\u1ed9i tr\u00fa t\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1eddng La Fl\u00e8che m\u1edbi th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp \u1edf t\u1ec9nh Anjou. T\u1ea1i La Fl\u00e8che, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u01b0u \u0111\u00e3i ng\u1ee7 n\u01b0\u1edbng \u0111\u1ebfn 11 gi\u1edd s\u00e1ng, thay v\u00ec d\u1eady l\u00fac 5 gi\u1edd s\u00e1ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng h\u1ecdc sinh kh\u00e1c, m\u1ed9t th\u00f3i quen m\u00e0 \u00f4ng duy tr\u00ec cho \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m \u00f4ng qua \u0111\u1eddi. Trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m cu\u1ed1i \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng, \u00f4ng h\u1ecdc tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean (natural philosophy), m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn kh\u1eafp \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XIII tr\u1edf \u0111i, si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc. \u00d4ng r\u1eddi tr\u01b0\u1eddng La Fl\u00e8che College n\u0103m 1614. N\u0103m 1615 v\u00e0o \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Poitiers, n\u01a1i m\u1ed9t n\u0103m sau \u00f4ng nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eb1ng C\u1eed nh\u00e2n v\u00e0 Gi\u1ea5y ph\u00e9p v\u1ec1 Lu\u1eadt Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i v\u00e0 D\u00e2n s\u1ef1.<\/p>\n

Sau La Fr\u00e8che, v\u00e0 sau m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian ng\u1eafn s\u1ed1ng \u1edf Paris (\u00f4ng c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ecdc y khoa, nh\u01b0ng ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh b\u00e1c s\u0129), v\u00e0 n\u0103m 20 tu\u1ed5i, \u00f4ng chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ebfn Paris. T\u1ea1i \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft lu\u1eadn v\u0103n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1ec1 \u00e2m nh\u1ea1c cho tu s\u0129 d\u00f2ng Minim v\u00e0 nh\u00e0 b\u00e1c h\u1ecdc Marin Mersenne (1588\u20131648), ng\u01b0\u1eddi sau n\u00e0y tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 su\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. Hai n\u0103m sau, v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1618, \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ebfn Breda, n\u01a1i \u00f4ng tham gia m\u1ed9t kh\u00f3a h\u1ecdc to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc th\u1ef1c ti\u1ec5n v\u1ec1 k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 v\u00e0 gia nh\u1eadp qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i H\u00e0 Lan d\u01b0\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n Maurice c\u1ee7a Nassau, d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 v\u1edbi vai tr\u00f2 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u00e1c s\u0129 h\u01a1n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t chi\u1ebfn binh. Trong ba n\u0103m, \u00f4ng \u0111i kh\u1eafp ch\u00e2u \u00c2u v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 “l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea” trong Chi\u1ebfn tranh Ba m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi xu\u1ea5t ng\u0169 v\u00e0 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u du l\u1ecbch m\u1ed9t m\u00ecnh. Sau \u0111\u00f3, Descartes tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 qu\u00ea h\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u00e0, v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1623, \u00f4ng b\u00e1n ph\u1ea7n t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n th\u1eeba k\u1ebf c\u1ee7a cha m\u1eb9, mua tr\u00e1i phi\u1ebfu c\u00f3 ti\u1ec1n l\u00e3i \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 nu\u00f4i s\u1ed1ng b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch khi\u00eam t\u1ed1n nh\u01b0ng tho\u1ea3i m\u00e1i cho \u0111\u1ebfn h\u1ebft \u0111\u1eddi, v\u00e0 tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i Paris. Ngay c\u1ea3 Paris v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 c\u0169ng qu\u00e1 y\u00ean t\u0129nh \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u00f4ng v\u00e0, v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1628, \u00f4ng chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ebfn trung t\u00e2m nh\u1ed9n nh\u1ecbp nh\u1ea5t ch\u00e2u \u00c2u th\u1eddi b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd – Amsterdam, n\u01a1i \u00f4ng n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng gi\u1eefa \u0111\u00e1m \u0111\u00f4ng, \u00f4ng t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y s\u1ef1 t\u0129nh l\u1eb7ng v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 do cho c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ea7y tham v\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c phi\u00eau l\u01b0u tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ecf ra c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb: \u00f4ng tr\u1edf n\u00ean kh\u00e1 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1edd ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c y h\u1ecdc, ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 do truy\u1ec1n mi\u1ec7ng, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp m\u1ed9t li\u00ean minh h\u1ee3p t\u00e1c v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ea7y c\u0169 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh t\u1eeb tr\u01b0\u1eddng qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1: Isaac Beeckman (1588\u20131637), c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u00e1c s\u0129 c\u00f3 h\u1ee9ng th\u00fa v\u1edbi tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi. Trong kho\u1ea3ng m\u01b0\u1eddi n\u0103m (cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi tranh ch\u1ea5p v\u1ec1 quy\u1ec1n \u01b0u ti\u00ean l\u00e0m r\u1ea1n n\u1ee9t m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7), hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f9ng nhau nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 v\u1ec1 c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 th\u1ee7y l\u1ef1c, ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 nguy\u00ean l\u00fd v\u1eadt l\u00fd cho ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n

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T\u00f2a th\u1ecb ch\u00ednh v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u1ee3ng Descartes.\u00a0 Th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed5i t\u00ean th\u00e0nh La Haye-Descartes v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1802 \u0111\u1ec3 vinh danh \u00f4ng, v\u00e0 sau \u0111\u00f3 l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed5i t\u00ean th\u00e0nh Descartes n\u0103m 1967. \u1ea2nh Wikipedia.<\/p>\n

T<\/span>uy v\u1eady, sau \u0111\u00f3 nh\u00ecn l\u1ea1i, Descartes kh\u00f4ng h\u00e0i l\u00f2ng m\u1ea5y v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 h\u1ecdc \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng La Fl\u00e8che. \u00d4ng c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y n\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i cho \u00f4ng nhi\u1ec1u nghi ng\u1edd v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn c\u1ee7a ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 vi\u1ec7c ti\u1ebfp x\u00fac v\u1edbi to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 hun \u0111\u00fac trong \u00f4ng s\u1ef1 t\u00f4n tr\u1ecdng su\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eddi \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi l\u00fd lu\u1eadn suy di\u1ec5n r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. V\u1edbi s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1-nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c, s\u1ef1 ph\u1ea3n t\u01b0 t\u1ec9nh t\u00e1o, nh\u00ecn l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng l\u1ee3i \u00edch c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c h\u1ecdc \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng La Fl\u00e8che khi \u0111\u1ee9ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ea3 “\u0111\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2n l\u00fd c\u00f2n ch\u01b0a kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1”, Descartes c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y v\u1eabn c\u00f2n ngu d\u1ed1t, ignorant, nh\u01b0ng l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i learned ignorance<\/em> c\u1ee7a Nicholas Cusa, nh\u1edd h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi bi\u1ebft m\u00ecnh c\u00f2n ngu d\u1ed1t:<\/p>\n

T\u1eeb thu\u1edf nh\u1ecf, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1ee3i t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng; v\u00e0 v\u00ec t\u00f4i tin r\u1eb1ng b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch n\u00e0y ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 thu th\u1eadp \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u00e0 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn v\u1ec1 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec h\u1eefu \u00edch trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng, n\u00ean t\u00f4i v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng h\u00e1o h\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi. Nh\u01b0ng ngay khi ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh kh\u00f3a h\u1ecdc m\u00e0 th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn v\u00e0o h\u00e0ng ng\u0169 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi uy\u00ean b\u00e1c, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n thay \u0111\u1ed5i quan \u0111i\u1ec3m. B\u1edfi v\u00ec t\u00f4i th\u1ea5y m\u00ecnh b\u1ecb v\u00e2y quanh b\u1edfi qu\u00e1 nhi\u1ec1u nghi ng\u1edd v\u00e0 sai l\u1ea7m \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh ch\u1eb3ng thu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u00ec t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp ngo\u00e0i vi\u1ec7c ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng nh\u1eadn ra s\u1ef1 thi\u1ebfu hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n. Th\u1ebf nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i l\u1ea1i \u0111ang h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng tr\u01b0\u1eddng n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, n\u01a1i t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00f4ng th\u00e1i n\u1ebfu h\u1ecd th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i \u1edf b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111\u00e2u tr\u00ean tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t. \u1ede \u0111\u00f3, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c \u0111ang h\u1ecdc; h\u01a1n n\u1eefa, kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 b\u1eb1ng l\u00f2ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc h\u1ecd d\u1ea1y, t\u00f4i c\u00f2n \u0111\u1ecdc h\u1ebft t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch m\u00e0 t\u00f4i c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 kh\u00f3 hi\u1ec3u v\u00e0 kh\u00e1c th\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u1ea5t. \u0110\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi, t\u00f4i bi\u1ebft nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 t\u00f4i nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o, v\u00e0 t\u00f4i th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng coi t\u00f4i thua k\u00e9m c\u00e1c b\u1ea1n h\u1ecdc, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong s\u1ed1 h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecbnh s\u1eb5n s\u1ebd thay th\u1ebf v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u1ea7y c\u00f4 gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang t\u00f4i. V\u00e0 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i m\u00e0 ch\u00fang t\u00f4i \u0111ang s\u1ed1ng d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u00f4i c\u0169ng th\u1ecbnh v\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng b\u1ed9 \u00f3c xu\u1ea5t ch\u00fang nh\u01b0 b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0o tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y khi\u1ebfn t\u00f4i c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y t\u1ef1 do \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 tri th\u1ee9c n\u00e0o tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi s\u00e1nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng g\u00ec t\u00f4i t\u1eebng hy v\u1ecdng tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y. (Ph\u1ea7n I, <\/span>Discourse on the Method<\/em>)<\/span><\/p>\n

\u0110\u00e2y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 “Cartesian reflection”, “ph\u1ea3n t\u01b0 cartesian” (theo c\u00e1ch Descartes), “d\u1ea5u \u1ea5n” \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp mang t\u00ednh tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn trong gi\u1edbi tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 kh\u1edfi \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u1edf Descartes. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t Cartesian c\u1ee7a h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u01b0 duy Descartes s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n.<\/p>\n

II<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

N<\/span>g\u01b0\u1eddi ta bi\u1ebft kh\u00e1 \u00edt v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Descartes trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1614 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1618. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 s\u1ed1ng m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian \u1edf Paris, d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 s\u1ed1ng r\u1ea5t kh\u00e9p k\u00edn, v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi suy \u0111o\u00e1n r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb suy s\u1ee5p tinh th\u1ea7n v\u00e0o th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y. \u00d4ng h\u1ecdc lu\u1eadt l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 chi\u1ec1u theo nguy\u1ec7n v\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a cha m\u00ecnh, nh\u01b0ng nhanh ch\u00f3ng nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng \u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n theo. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m “Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p”<\/em>:<\/p>\n

T\u00f4i ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n t\u1eeb b\u1ecf vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng, quy\u1ebft t\u00e2m kh\u00f4ng t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c ngo\u00e0i nh\u1eefng g\u00ec c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong ch\u00ednh b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n m\u00ecnh ho\u1eb7c trong cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. T\u00f4i d\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a tu\u1ed5i tr\u1ebb \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i du l\u1ecbch, th\u0103m c\u00e1c tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh v\u00e0 qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i, giao l\u01b0u v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecba v\u1ecb kh\u00e1c nhau, t\u00edch l\u0169y nhi\u1ec1u kinh nghi\u1ec7m, th\u1eed th\u00e1ch b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n trong nh\u1eefng t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng m\u00e0 s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn mang \u0111\u1ebfn, v\u00e0 lu\u00f4n suy ng\u1eabm v\u1ec1 m\u1ecdi \u0111i\u1ec1u x\u1ea3y \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1edbi m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 r\u00fat ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u00e0i h\u1ecdc kinh nghi\u1ec7m. (The Philosophical Writings of Descartes<\/em>, Vol. 1, 115)<\/span><\/p>\n

T\u1eeb n\u0103m 1620 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1628, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111i du l\u1ecbch kh\u1eafp ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, d\u00e0nh th\u1eddi gian \u1edf Bohemia (1620), Hungary (1621), \u0110\u1ee9c, H\u00e0 Lan v\u00e0 Ph\u00e1p (1622-1623). N\u0103m 1623, \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ed1ng \u1edf Paris, n\u01a1i \u00f4ng li\u00ean l\u1ea1c v\u1edbi Marin Mersenne, m\u1ed9t m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 quan tr\u1ecdng gi\u00fap \u00f4ng duy tr\u00ec li\u00ean h\u1ec7 v\u1edbi gi\u1edbi khoa h\u1ecdc trong nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m, v\u00e0 v\u1edbi Claude Mydorge. T\u1eeb Paris, \u00f4ng \u0111i qua Th\u1ee5y S\u0129 \u0111\u1ebfn \u00dd, d\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian \u1edf Venice v\u00e0 Rome, sau \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i Ph\u00e1p (1625). Ng\u00f4i nh\u00e0 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u1edf Paris tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh n\u01a1i g\u1eb7p g\u1ee1 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng nh\u1ed9n nh\u1ecbp.<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1628, \u00f4ng c\u00f3 nhu c\u1ea7u r\u00fat lui v\u00e0 suy ngh\u0129 ch\u1ecdn m\u1ed9t n\u01a1i \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u01b0 y\u00ean t\u0129nh \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ed1ng trong s\u1ef1 c\u00f4 \u0111\u1ed9c c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. V\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ecdn H\u00e0 Lan, s\u1ed1ng \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 trong hai m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m t\u1edbi (1629-1649), ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i chuy\u1ebfn th\u0103m ng\u1eafn \u0111\u1ebfn Ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t chuy\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ebfn Anh, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec1u v\u00ec c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c. Kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i h\u1ebft t\u1ea7m quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a H\u00e0 Lan trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII, v\u00ec \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 qu\u1ed1c gia duy nh\u1ea5t m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ef1 do nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u00e0 t\u01b0 bi\u1ec7n. C\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m b\u1ecb c\u1ea5m c\u1ee7a Galilei \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c in \u1edf \u0111\u00f3. Hobbes ph\u1ea3i in s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh \u1edf \u0111\u00f3; Locke \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm n\u01a1i tr\u00fa \u1ea9n \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 trong n\u0103m n\u0103m t\u1ed3i t\u1ec7 nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed9ng \u1edf Anh tr\u01b0\u1edbc n\u0103m 1688.<\/p>\n

Nhanh ch\u00f3ng, Descartes b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u vi\u1ebft lu\u1eadn v\u0103n l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt l\u00fd, Le Monde, ou Trait\u00e9 de la Lumi\u00e8re<\/em> (Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi hay Lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 \u00c1nh s\u00e1ng). \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft th\u01b0 cho Mersenne v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng 10 n\u0103m 1629:<\/p>\n

[Nh\u1eefng n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt l\u00fd] l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 m\u00e0 t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u nhi\u1ec1u h\u01a1n b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c v\u00e0, t\u1ea1 \u01a1n Ch\u00faa, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n l\u00e3ng ph\u00ed th\u1eddi gian c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3. \u00cdt nh\u1ea5t t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm ra c\u00e1ch ch\u1ee9ng minh nh\u1eefng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd si\u00eau h\u00ecnh m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng h\u01a1n c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ch\u1ee9ng minh h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc – theo \u00fd ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bc\u1ee7a t\u00f4i: T\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft li\u1ec7u m\u00ecnh c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c v\u1ec1 \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 hay kh\u00f4ng. Trong ch\u00edn th\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u1edf \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc n\u00e0y, t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m vi\u1ec7c g\u00ec kh\u00e1c ngo\u00e0i vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

M\u1ed0C TH\u1edcI GIAN<\/span><\/p>\n

1596 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Descartes sinh ra t\u1ea1i La Haye.<\/p>\n

1606 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 V\u00e0o h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i La Fl\u00e8che.<\/p>\n

1614 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 R\u1eddi La Fl\u00e8che, h\u1ecdc lu\u1eadt t\u1ea1i Poitiers.<\/p>\n

1616 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 T\u1ed1t nghi\u1ec7p Poitiers.<\/p>\n

1618-1648\u00a0\u00a0 Chi\u1ebfn tranh 30 n\u0103m<\/p>\n

1618 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 L\u00e0 binh l\u00ednh d\u01b0\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n Maurice x\u1ee9 Orange. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Compendium Musicae<\/em> (ch\u01b0a xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n).<\/p>\n

1619 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Ng\u00e0y 10 th\u00e1ng 11: Gi\u1ea5c m\u01a1 “\u01a1n g\u1ecdi” \u0111\u00e1nh d\u1ea5u b\u01b0\u1edbc ngo\u1eb7t trong s\u1ef1 nghi\u1ec7p.<\/p>\n

1620 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Du h\u00e0nh ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. Cogitationes Privatae, Olympica<\/em> (ch\u01b0a xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n).<\/p>\n

1628\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u0110\u1ecbnh c\u01b0 \u1edf H\u00e0 Lan, b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u Meisterjahre<\/em> v\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n. Quy t\u1eafc \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n t\u00e2m tr\u00ed<\/em> (ch\u01b0a ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh, ch\u01b0a xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n).<\/p>\n

1633\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Galilei b\u1ecb T\u00f2a \u00e1n d\u1ecb gi\u00e1o tuy\u00ean \u00e1n v\u1ec1 t\u1ed9i ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn thuy\u1ebft Copernicus. Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi<\/em> v\u00e0 Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi<\/em> c\u1ee7a Descartes \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb r\u00fat l\u1ea1i.<\/p>\n

1637 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>, Quang h\u1ecdc, H\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, Kh\u00ed t\u01b0\u1ee3ng h\u1ecdc<\/em>, t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n.<\/p>\n

1640 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 C\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a con g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a Descartes.<\/p>\n

1641\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Suy ni\u1ec7m<\/em>, v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng Ph\u1ea3n b\u00e1c<\/em> v\u00e0 L\u1eddi \u0111\u00e1p<\/em>. Con Francine m\u1ea5t.<\/p>\n

1642\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Newton ch\u00e0o \u0111\u1eddi, 8 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi Descartes m\u1ea5t.<\/p>\n

1644 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc<\/em>.<\/p>\n

1645 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 T\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd<\/em> (ch\u01b0a xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n, ng\u00e0y th\u00e1ng kh\u00f4ng ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn).<\/p>\n

1649 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Ni\u1ec1m \u0111am m\u00ea c\u1ee7a t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n<\/em> \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n. “S\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh<\/em>“, m\u1ed9t v\u1edf ba l\u00ea v\u1ec1 Hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc Westphalia \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft cho N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng\u00a0 Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n.<\/p>\n

1650 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Descartes qua \u0111\u1eddi t\u1ea1i Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n.<\/p>\n

1687\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Principia<\/em> c\u1ee7a Newton xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n, cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea1t t\u1edbi \u0111\u1ec9nh cao.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

III<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

CU\u1ed8C H\u00c0NH TR\u00ccNH T\u1ef0 TH\u00c2N<\/span><\/p>\n

Tuy nhi\u00ean, sau khi xem x\u00e9t t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng, c\u1ea3 trong qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9 v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i, \u0111\u00e3 t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u00ean \u00f4ng, t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e1o c\u1ee7a Descartes c\u00e0ng t\u1ecfa s\u00e1ng r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1 h\u01a1n, v\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta c\u00e0ng th\u1ea5y r\u00f5 h\u01a1n r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 kh\u1edfi x\u01b0\u1edbng m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi. Hegel g\u1ecdi \u00f4ng l\u00e0 anh h\u00f9ng, v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 c\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111i\u1ec7u n\u00e0y \u1edf m\u1ed9t kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ec7n minh. Qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c, Descartes kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 thi\u00ean h\u01b0\u1edbng t\u1eed v\u00ec \u0111\u1ea1o. Nh\u01b0ng t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 ban cho \u00f4ng l\u00f2ng d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m cao c\u1ea3, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u00ecnh y\u00eau ch\u00e2n l\u00fd v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 t\u1eadn t\u00e2m v\u1edbi khoa h\u1ecdc; v\u00e0 n\u1ebfu danh hi\u1ec7u anh h\u00f9ng d\u00e0nh cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c m\u1edf ra nh\u1eefng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng m\u1edbi cho t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, th\u00ec Descartes ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn x\u1ee9ng \u0111\u00e1ng v\u1edbi danh hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u00f3.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014Lucien L\u00e9vy-Bruhl<\/strong><\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng n\u0103m th\u00e1ng h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp \u0111\u00e3 thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c \u00f4ng v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 thi\u1ebfu hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u1ea7y c\u00f4, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh b\u1ecf qua s\u00e1ch gi\u00e1o khoa v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 m\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch t\u1ef1 h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi v\u00e0 t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi xung quanh.\u00a0\u0110\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh tho\u1ea1t nh\u00ecn c\u00f3 v\u1ebb kh\u00e1 k\u1ef3 l\u1ea1, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 r\u1eddi b\u1ecf qu\u00ea h\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u00e0 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ebfn H\u00e0 Lan, n\u01a1i \u00f4ng gia nh\u1eadp qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a Ho\u00e0ng t\u1eed Orange. Nh\u01b0ng Descartes, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ed1m y\u1ebfu, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00ednh chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u, n\u00ean t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y v\u1ecb tr\u00ed th\u00edch h\u1ee3p c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh trong qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t k\u1ef9 s\u01b0, s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 n\u0103ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Ch\u00ednh trong th\u1eddi gian h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i Tr\u01b0\u1eddng Qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 \u1edf Breda, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7p nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc Isaac Beeckman, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eeb Dordrecht, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u cho \u00f4ng nh\u1eefng kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh cao c\u1ea5p h\u01a1n c\u1ee7a to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n l\u00e2u d\u00e0i.<\/p>\n

Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng qu\u00e2n ng\u0169 c\u1ee7a Descartes trong v\u00e0i n\u0103m ti\u1ebfp theo, khi \u00f4ng ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 trong nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n ch\u00e2u \u00c2u kh\u00e1c nhau, bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a C\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edbc x\u1ee9 Bavaria, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ch\u00fang ta bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t t\u1ea1i l\u1ec5 \u0111\u0103ng quang c\u1ee7a Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Ferdinand II \u1edf Frankfurt n\u0103m 1619. Tuy nhi\u00ean, v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i n\u0103m \u0111\u00f3 (1619), s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t trong cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi Descartes \u0111\u00e3 x\u1ea3y ra, v\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta bi\u1ebft ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c khi n\u00e0o v\u00e0 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2u n\u00f3 x\u1ea3y ra v\u00ec \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f4ng k\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i trong cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 h\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> \u2013 t\u00ean \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7: Discours de la M\u00e9thode pour bien conduire la raison et chercher la V\u00e9rit\u00e9 dans les sciences<\/em> (Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p d\u1eabn d\u1eaft l\u00fd tr\u00ed \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn v\u00e0 t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd trong khoa h\u1ecdc) \u2013 xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1637. S\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n quan tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra ng\u00e0y 10 th\u00e1ng 11 n\u0103m 1619 (Ng\u00e0y Th\u00e1nh Martin), v\u00e0 l\u00fac qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a C\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edbc x\u1ee9 Bavaria (t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p \u0111\u1ec3 chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Tin l\u00e0nh) \u0111ang \u0111\u00f3ng qu\u00e2n m\u00f9a \u0111\u00f4ng b\u00ean b\u1edd s\u00f4ng Danube. Descartes \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e0nh c\u1ea3 ng\u00e0y n\u1eb1m cu\u1ed9n tr\u00f2n tr\u00ean gi\u01b0\u1eddng, thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh s\u00e2u v\u00e0 tr\u1ea3i qua ba gi\u1ea5c m\u01a1 m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i m\u00e0 \u00f4ng coi l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng d\u1ea5u hi\u1ec7u “ti\u00ean tri v\u1ec1 \u01a1n g\u1ecdi<\/em> thi\u00eang li\u00eang”. C\u0103n ph\u00f2ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f4ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 “po\u00eale” (ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 “b\u1ebfp l\u00f2”), thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef th\u00f4ng d\u1ee5ng th\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 m\u1ed9t c\u0103n ph\u00f2ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u01b0\u1edfi \u1ea5m b\u1eb1ng b\u1ebfp l\u00f2 b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ea5t nung. \u0110i\u1ec1u ch\u00ednh y\u1ebfu c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n ng\u00e0y h\u00f4m \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 Descartes l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a ri\u00eang m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng, <\/strong>khi\u1ebfn \u00f4ng n\u1ea3y ra \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1ef1 m\u00ecnh th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch n\u1ec1n h\u1ecdc v\u1ea5n c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, nh\u1eb1m ch\u1ee9ng minh t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng nh\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t khoa h\u1ecdc k\u1ef3 di\u1ec7u duy nh\u1ea5t.\u00a0L\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng m\u1edbi 23t. Sau \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch, n\u1ed1i li\u1ec1n h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1, \u0111\u1eb7t n\u1ec1n m\u00f3ng cho h\u1ec7 t\u1ecda \u0111\u1ed9 Cartesian. Ti\u1ebfp \u0111\u1ebfn, \u00f4ng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> (1637), nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n r\u1ea5t l\u00e2u sau \u0111\u00f3, \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n v\u00ec n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng g\u00ec kh\u00e1c h\u01a1n l\u00e0 di\u1ec5n \u0111\u1ea1t c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1ee9c l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n trong H\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc. Descartes, trong Lu\u1eadn v\u0103n<\/em> c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ec9 ra con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta ph\u1ea3i \u0111i theo, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng quanh co v\u00e0 kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n m\u00e0 ch\u00ednh \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ea3i qua. (Koyr\u00e9)\u00a0Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 c\u00e1i m\u1edbi.<\/p>\n

\u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t, k\u00e8m theo ba b\u00e0i lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 kh\u00ed t\u01b0\u1ee3ng h\u1ecdc, quang h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00fang, \u0111i\u1ec1u quan tr\u1ecdng v\u1ec1 b\u00e0i lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 kh\u00ed t\u01b0\u1ee3ng h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 n\u00f3 c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi ti\u1ebft b\u1eb1ng khoa h\u1ecdc duy l\u00fd, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch vi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ebfn huy\u1ec1n b\u00ed hay s\u1ef1 t\u00f9y h\u1ee9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n. B\u00e0i lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 quang h\u1ecdc m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a m\u1eaft v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t c\u00e1c c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ec3 c\u1ea3i thi\u1ec7n k\u00ednh vi\u1ec5n v\u1ecdng. V\u00e0 b\u00e0i lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea5c m\u01a1 b\u00ean b\u1edd s\u00f4ng Danube.<\/p>\n

T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m l\u1edbn th\u1ee9 hai c\u1ee7a Descartes, Suy ng\u1eabm v\u1ec1 Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ti\u00ean kh\u1edfi<\/em>\u00a0(Meditationnes de Prima Philosophia, hay Meditations on First Philosophy<\/em>). Trong l\u1eddi t\u1ef1a, Descartes n\u00f3i v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed9c gi\u1ea3, \u201cT\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng khuy\u1ebfn kh\u00edch b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 ai \u0111\u1ecdc cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch n\u00e0y ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng v\u00e0 s\u1eb5n l\u00f2ng suy ng\u1eabm nghi\u00eam t\u00fac c\u00f9ng t\u00f4i\u201d. \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n cu\u1ed1n Suy ng\u1eabm<\/em> tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft, m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c l\u00fd l\u1ebd v\u00e0 k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u00e0i t\u1eadp t\u01b0 duy, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 kh\u00edch l\u1ec7 v\u00e0 h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn cho nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed9c gi\u1ea3 s\u1ebd t\u1ef1 m\u00ecnh suy ngh\u0129 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. \u00d4ng x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc xung quanh c\u00e2u n\u00f3i n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t “T\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy, do \u0111\u00f3 t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i”.<\/p>\n

V\u00e0o n\u0103m 1644, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 cho ra \u0111\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p l\u1edbn th\u1ee9 ba cho tri th\u1ee9c, Principia Philosophtae,<\/em> hay Nguy\u00ean l\u00fd tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc<\/em>, v\u1ec1 c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt l\u00fd, trong \u0111\u00f3 Descartes nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0a ra c\u00e1ch gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c v\u1ec1 qu\u00e1n t\u00ednh<\/em> (inertia), r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u00f3 xu h\u01b0\u1edbng ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng theo \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1eb3ng, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i theo \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng tr\u00f2n.<\/p>\n

Sau cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch \u0111\u00f3, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ebfn Ph\u00e1p k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1629, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u00f3 m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n n\u1eefa v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1647. Trong chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i n\u00e0y \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7p nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc tr\u1ebb tu\u1ed5i Blaise Pascal (1613-1661). \u00d4ng \u0111\u1ec1 ngh\u1ecb v\u1edbi Pascal r\u1eb1ng s\u1ebd r\u1ea5t th\u00fa v\u1ecb n\u1ebfu mang m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i \u00e1p k\u1ebf l\u00ean n\u00fai \u0111\u1ec3 xem \u00e1p su\u1ea5t thay \u0111\u1ed5i nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o theo \u0111\u1ed9 cao. Khi c\u00e1c th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n (b\u1edfi anh r\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a Pascal v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1648), ch\u00fang cho th\u1ea5y \u00e1p su\u1ea5t kh\u00ed quy\u1ec3n gi\u1ea3m khi \u0111\u1ed9 cao t\u0103ng, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t l\u1edbp kh\u00f4ng kh\u00ed m\u1ecfng bao quanh ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i d\u00e0y \u0111\u1eb7c v\u00f4 t\u1eadn. M\u1ed9t chuy\u1ebfn th\u0103m kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ebfn Ph\u00e1p v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1648 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u00e1n \u0111o\u1ea1n b\u1edfi m\u1ed1i \u0111e d\u1ecda n\u1ed9i chi\u1ebfn, th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 th\u00f9 \u0111\u1ecbch v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Tin l\u00e0nh gia t\u0103ng, khi \u0111\u00f3 51 tu\u1ed5i v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1648. M\u1eb7t kh\u00e1c, an ninh \u1edf H\u00e0 Lan c\u0169ng g\u1eb7p h\u1ed3i kh\u00f3i kh\u0103n b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Calvinist, \u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n t\u00ecm s\u1ef1 an to\u00e0n \u1edf m\u1ed9t n\u01b0\u1edbc th\u1ee9 ba.<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ec9nh cao trong c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh khoa h\u1ecdc ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft c\u00f3 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi “Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi<\/em>“. Trong \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng \u0111\u1eb7t ra m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch khoa h\u1ecdc to\u00e0n di\u1ec7n v\u1ec1 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c v\u00e0 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 v\u1ec1 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 Galileo, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng Tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t quay quanh M\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi; nh\u01b0ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft tin Galileo b\u1ecb k\u1ebft \u00e1n. \u00d4ng quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh kh\u00f4ng c\u00f4ng b\u1ed1 v\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 gi\u1eef k\u00edn thuy\u1ebft nh\u1eadt t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Descartes, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t bi\u1ebft t\u01b0 duy. \u00d4ng b\u00e1c b\u1ecf h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Aristotle cho r\u1eb1ng linh h\u1ed3n l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c. Trong khi \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Aristotle th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt c\u00f3 l\u00fd tr\u00ed, th\u00ec \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Descartes, to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7. Trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m “Lu\u1eadn v\u0103n”, \u00f4ng n\u00f3i: “T\u00f4i nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 m\u00e0 to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 c\u1ed1t l\u00f5i hay b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy, v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n v\u1ecb tr\u00ed v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t n\u00e0o.” Trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i, \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd, t\u00e2m tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta g\u1eafn b\u00f3 m\u1eadt thi\u1ebft v\u1edbi th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c t\u1ea1o n\u00ean con ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1eadt s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta. H\u01a1n n\u1eefa, trong h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a Descartes, tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quan ni\u1ec7m theo m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch m\u1edbi: b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh m\u00e0 l\u00e0 \u00fd th\u1ee9c, s\u1ef1 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng suy ngh\u0129 c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang.<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ed1i l\u1eadp v\u1edbi tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 (mind) l\u00e0 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Descartes, v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng trong chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng. “S\u1ef1 m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng” \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec c\u00f3 c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c t\u00ednh h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng, k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc, kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ph\u00e2n chia, v.v.; \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng thu\u1ed9c t\u00ednh duy nh\u1ea5t m\u00e0 Descartes g\u00e1n cho v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t \u1edf c\u1ea5p \u0111\u1ed9 c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n. Trong lu\u1eadn v\u0103n Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi<\/em>, v\u00e0 trong nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eeda \u0111\u1ed5i m\u00e0 \u00f4ng xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n khi c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch cho t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u1ec1 nhi\u1ec7t, \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng, m\u00e0u s\u1eafc v\u00e0 \u00e2m thanh d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ea1t nh\u1ecf c\u00f3 k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0 h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng kh\u00e1c nhau.<\/p>\n

Gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 Bacon, Descartes so s\u00e1nh tri th\u1ee9c v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i c\u00e2y; nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u00f4ng, r\u1ec5 c\u00e2y l\u00e0 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, th\u00e2n c\u00e2y l\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u00e0nh c\u00e2y sai tr\u00e1i l\u00e0 c\u00e1c khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c v\u00e0 \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng. C\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, sau Lu\u1eadn v\u0103n<\/em>, c\u0169ng theo th\u1ee9 t\u1ef1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ee3i \u00fd nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. N\u0103m 1641, \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft cu\u1ed1n Suy ni\u1ec7m<\/em> si\u00eau h\u00ecnh, n\u0103m 1644 l\u00e0 Nguy\u00ean l\u00fd tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc<\/em> (m\u1ed9t phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ec9nh s\u1eeda c\u1ee7a Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi), v\u00e0 n\u0103m 1649 l\u00e0 Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 \u0111am m\u00ea (c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n)<\/em>\u00a0ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn v\u0103n \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c. Th\u1eadp ni\u00ean 1640 l\u00e0 th\u1eadp k\u1ef7 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, c\u0169ng l\u00e0 th\u1eadp k\u1ef7 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc nh\u1ea5t trong cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi \u00f4ng. (Kenny, An Illustrated brief history<\/em>)<\/p>\n

T<\/span><\/span>rong Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>, Descartes cho r\u1eb1ng,<\/p>\n

N\u0103ng l\u1ef1c hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft l\u00e0nh m\u1ea1nh l\u00e0 th\u1ee9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e2n ph\u1ed1i t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi: m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n h\u1ecd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u1eddi ph\u00fa nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i ngay c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f3 t\u00ednh nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng mong mu\u1ed1n nhi\u1ec1u h\u01a1n nh\u1eefng g\u00ec h\u1ecd \u0111ang s\u1edf h\u1eefu. … \u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 cho th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n t\u1ed1t v\u00e0 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u00fang v\u1edbi sai – nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ch\u00fang ta g\u1ecdi \u0111\u00fang l\u00e0 ‘l\u1ebd th\u01b0\u1eddng’ (good sense) ho\u1eb7c ‘l\u00fd t\u00ednh’ (reason) – t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng \u1edf t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ef1 \u0111a d\u1ea1ng v\u1ec1 \u00fd ki\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng ph\u00e1t sinh b\u1edfi v\u00ec m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong ch\u00fang ta h\u1ee3p l\u00fd h\u01a1n nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 v\u00ec ch\u00fang ta h\u01b0\u1edbng suy ngh\u0129 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh theo nh\u1eefng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng kh\u00e1c nhau v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ch\u00fa \u00fd \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u gi\u1ed1ng nhau. Ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t t\u00e2m tr\u00ed t\u1ed1t l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ee7; \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u00ednh y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng n\u00f3 th\u1eadt t\u1ed1t. Nh\u1eefng linh h\u1ed3n v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng l\u00e0m nh\u1eefng t\u1ec7 n\u1ea1n l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ea1nh l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t; v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u1ebfn l\u00ean nh\u01b0ng r\u1ea5t ch\u1eadm c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 l\u1edbn h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u, n\u1ebfu h\u1ecd lu\u00f4n \u0111i theo con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn, so v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1ed9i v\u00e0ng v\u00e0 \u0111i l\u1ea1c kh\u1ecfi n\u00f3. (Discourse on the Method<\/em>, Ph\u1ea7n I)<\/p>\n

\"\" T\u00f4i nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 m\u00e0 to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 c\u1ed1t l\u00f5i hay b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy, v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n v\u1ecb tr\u00ed v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t n\u00e0o.<\/em> <\/span>(Ren\u00e9 Descartes)<\/span><\/p>\n

C\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u1ebfp thu trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh l\u1edbn l\u00ean c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn v\u00e0 t\u00ecm tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m cho ri\u00eang m\u00ecnh:<\/p>\n

\u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 l\u00fd do t\u1ea1i sao, ngay khi \u0111\u1ee7 l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ec3 tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u1ea7y c\u00f4, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n t\u1eeb b\u1ecf vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng. Quy\u1ebft t\u00e2m kh\u00f4ng t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c ngo\u00e0i nh\u1eefng g\u00ec c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong ch\u00ednh b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n m\u00ecnh ho\u1eb7c trong cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a tu\u1ed5i tr\u1ebb \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i du l\u1ecbch, th\u0103m c\u00e1c tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh v\u00e0 qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i, giao l\u01b0u v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 t\u00ednh kh\u00ed v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecba v\u1ecb kh\u00e1c nhau, thu th\u1eadp nhi\u1ec1u kinh nghi\u1ec7m, th\u1eed th\u00e1ch b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n trong nh\u1eefng t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng m\u00e0 s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn mang l\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 lu\u00f4n suy ng\u1eabm v\u1ec1 m\u1ecdi \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1edbi m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 r\u00fat ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ee3i \u00edch t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3. […] V\u00e0 \u01b0\u1edbc mu\u1ed1n tha thi\u1ebft nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i lu\u00f4n l\u00e0 h\u1ecdc c\u00e1ch ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t th\u1eadt gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn r\u00f5 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 ti\u1ebfn b\u01b0\u1edbc t\u1ef1 tin trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng n\u00e0y. (Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>, Ph\u1ea7n I)<\/p>\n

v\u00e0 ti\u1ebfp theo, c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi t\u00f4i l\u00e0 ai:<\/p>\n

Ti\u1ebfp theo, t\u00f4i xem x\u00e9t k\u1ef9 l\u01b0\u1ee1ng t\u00f4i l\u00e0 ai. T\u00f4i nh\u1eadn th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng, d\u00f9 t\u00f4i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3 v\u1edd r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u00e2n th\u1ec3, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 n\u01a1i n\u00e0o \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, t\u00f4i v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3 v\u1edd r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh kh\u00f4ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. Ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i, ch\u1ec9 ri\u00eang vi\u1ec7c t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c nghi ng\u1edd s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 kh\u00e1c \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u00e0 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i; trong khi \u0111\u00f3, n\u1ebfu t\u00f4i ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n l\u00e0 ng\u1eebng suy ngh\u0129, ngay c\u1ea3 khi m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 kh\u00e1c m\u00e0 t\u00f4i t\u1eebng t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt, t\u00f4i c\u0169ng s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 l\u00fd do g\u00ec \u0111\u1ec3 tin r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. T\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3, t\u00f4i bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 m\u00e0 to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t hay c\u1ed1t l\u00f5i c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n l\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 n\u01a1i ch\u1ed1n n\u00e0o, hay ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t n\u00e0o \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. Do \u0111\u00f3, c\u00e1i ‘t\u00f4i’ n\u00e0y – t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 linh h\u1ed3n m\u00e0 nh\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 t\u00f4i l\u00e0 ch\u00ednh t\u00f4i – ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi th\u00e2n th\u1ec3, v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 d\u1ec5 nh\u1eadn bi\u1ebft h\u01a1n th\u00e2n th\u1ec3, v\u00e0 s\u1ebd v\u1eabn c\u00f2n c\u00e1i n\u00f3 l\u00e0, ngay c\u1ea3 khi th\u00e2n th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. (Discourse<\/em>, Ph\u1ea7n VI)<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ed3ng \u00fd, t\u00e2m tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta g\u1eafn b\u00f3 m\u1eadt thi\u1ebft v\u1edbi th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c t\u1ea1o n\u00ean con ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1eadt s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta. H\u01a1n n\u1eefa, trong h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a Descartes, tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quan ni\u1ec7m theo m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch m\u1edbi: b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh m\u00e0 l\u00e0 \u00fd th\u1ee9c, s\u1ef1 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng suy ngh\u0129 c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang.<\/p>\n

T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t chuy\u00ean lu\u1eadn ng\u1eafn, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft d\u01b0\u1edbi d\u1ea1ng t\u1ef1 truy\u1ec7n, v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng. Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p s\u1ef1 duy\u00ean d\u00e1ng v\u1ec1 v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng, s\u1ef1 h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn v\u1ec1 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc b\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t th\u1ec3 lo\u1ea1i th\u1ee9c ch\u01b0a t\u1eebng th\u1ea5y \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c2u k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb c\u00e1c \u0110\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i<\/em> c\u1ee7a Plato, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0o s\u00e1nh k\u1ecbp v\u1ec1 m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb Th\u00f4ng \u0111i\u1ec7p t\u1eeb c\u00e1c v\u00ec sao<\/em> c\u1ee7a Galileo. Descartes nh\u1eafm \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t giai t\u1ea7ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i m\u1edbi, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng qu\u00fd \u00f4ng, b\u00e1c s\u0129 v\u00e0 lu\u1eadt s\u01b0 c\u00f3 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ecba v\u1ecb ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng cao trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 \u0111\u00f3, l\u1ea5n \u00e1t gi\u1edbi gi\u00e1o s\u0129. Descartes mu\u1ed1n h\u01b0\u1edbng \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c “tri\u1ebft gia” c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVIII. (Kearney, Science and Change<\/em>, 151)<\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng \u0111o\u1ea1n t\u1ef1 thu\u1eadt ti\u1ebfp theo trong Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> r\u1ea5t th\u00fa v\u1ecb \u0111\u00e1ng tham kh\u1ea3o:<\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 ph\u1ea7n m\u00ecnh, t\u00f4i ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd cho r\u1eb1ng tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o h\u01a1n ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng; th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, t\u00f4i th\u01b0\u1eddng ao \u01b0\u1edbc m\u00ecnh c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh nhanh nh\u1ea1y, tr\u00ed t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng s\u1eafc s\u1ea3o v\u00e0 r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng, ho\u1eb7c tr\u00ed nh\u1edb phong ph\u00fa v\u00e0 nhanh ch\u00f3ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. V\u00e0 ngo\u00e0i nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3, t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft ph\u1ea9m ch\u1ea5t n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c gi\u00fap ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7; b\u1edfi v\u00ec, x\u00e9t v\u1ec1 l\u00fd t\u00ednh hay gi\u00e1c quan, v\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u duy nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0m n\u00ean con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e0 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t ch\u00fang ta v\u1edbi lo\u00e0i th\u00fa, t\u00f4i c\u00f3 khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng tin r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i tr\u1ecdn v\u1eb9n v\u00e0 ho\u00e0n ch\u1ec9nh trong m\u1ed7i ch\u00fang ta. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y t\u00f4i \u0111i theo quan \u0111i\u1ec3m chung c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c t\u00ednh ng\u1eabu nhi\u00ean, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c h\u00ecnh th\u00e1i, forms<\/em> (hay b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t) c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c c\u00e1 th\u1ec3<\/em> (individuals) c\u00f9ng lo\u00e0i.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i xin kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh kh\u00f4ng ch\u00fat do d\u1ef1 r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i t\u1ef1 th\u1ea5y m\u00ecnh r\u1ea5t may m\u1eafn khi th\u1eddi tr\u1ebb \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecnh c\u1edd t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn d\u1eaft t\u00f4i \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng suy ng\u1eabm v\u00e0 ch\u00e2m ng\u00f4n, t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 t\u00f4i h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p m\u00e0 theo t\u00f4i, t\u00f4i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n gia t\u0103ng ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c v\u00e0 n\u00e2ng n\u00f3 l\u00ean t\u1eebng ch\u00fat m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c cao nh\u1ea5t m\u00e0 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 t\u1ea7m th\u01b0\u1eddng v\u00e0 tu\u1ed5i th\u1ecd ng\u1eafn ng\u1ee7i c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i cho ph\u00e9p. Gi\u1edd \u0111\u00e2y, t\u00f4i lu\u00f4n c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng nghi\u00eang v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 khi\u00eam nh\u01b0\u1eddng h\u01a1n l\u00e0 ki\u00eau ng\u1ea1o trong nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n; v\u00e0 khi nh\u00ecn nh\u1eadn c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c kh\u00e1c nhau c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i b\u1eb1ng con m\u1eaft tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, h\u1ea7u nh\u01b0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e0o m\u00e0 t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng cho l\u00e0 ph\u00f9 phi\u1ebfm v\u00e0 v\u00f4 \u00edch. Tuy nhi\u00ean, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7t h\u00e1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh qu\u1ea3 t\u1eeb ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng h\u00e0i l\u00f2ng v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 m\u00e0 t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 m\u00ecnh \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c trong vi\u1ec7c t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, v\u00e0 t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng nu\u00f4i hy v\u1ecdng cho t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c d\u00e1m kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng n\u1ebfu c\u00f3 b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p thu\u1ea7n t\u00fay c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0o c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 t\u1ea7m quan tr\u1ecdng th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1, th\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p m\u00e0 t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ecdn.<\/p>\n

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Ren\u00e9 Descartes l\u00fac c\u00f2n tr\u1ebb. \u00d4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 “b\u1eadc th\u1ea7y c\u1ee7a th\u1ec3 lo\u1ea1i t\u1ef1 s\u1ef1 ng\u00f4i th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t”.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

Ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c:<\/em><\/p>\n

Tuy nhi\u00ean, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 sai: c\u00f3 l\u1ebd nh\u1eefng g\u00ec t\u00f4i cho l\u00e0 v\u00e0ng v\u00e0 kim c\u01b0\u01a1ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat \u0111\u1ed3ng v\u00e0 th\u1ee7y tinh. T\u00f4i bi\u1ebft ch\u00fang ta d\u1ec5 m\u1eafc sai l\u1ea7m nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o trong nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn m\u00ecnh, v\u00e0 c\u0169ng bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang ta n\u00ean nghi ng\u1edd nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n c\u1ee7a b\u1ea1n b\u00e8 khi ch\u00fang c\u00f3 l\u1ee3i cho m\u00ecnh. Tuy nhi\u00ean, t\u00f4i v\u1eabn vui l\u00f2ng ti\u1ebft l\u1ed9 trong b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y nh\u1eefng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111i, v\u00e0 mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi m\u00ecnh nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t b\u1ee9c tranh, \u0111\u1ec3 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1; v\u00e0 nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi t\u1eeb ph\u1ea3n h\u1ed3i c\u1ee7a c\u00f4ng ch\u00fang v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u00fd ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200b\u200b\u200b\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a ra, t\u00f4i s\u1ebd b\u1ed5 sung th\u00eam m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p t\u1ef1 h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p m\u00e0 t\u00f4i v\u1eabn th\u01b0\u1eddng s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng.<\/p>\n

M\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i, do \u0111\u00f3, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 d\u1ea1y ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p m\u00e0 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ea3i tu\u00e2n theo \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u01b0\u1edbng l\u00fd t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn, m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 ti\u1ebft l\u1ed9 c\u00e1ch t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u01b0\u1edbng l\u00fd t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0o d\u00e1m \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u1eddi khuy\u00ean th\u00ec h\u1eb3n ph\u1ea3i ngh\u0129 m\u00ecnh kh\u00e9o l\u00e9o h\u01a1n nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u00ecnh khuy\u00ean b\u1ea3o; v\u00e0 n\u1ebfu ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 m\u1eafc ph\u1ea3i sai l\u1ea7m nh\u1ecf nh\u1ea5t, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb khi\u1ec3n tr\u00e1ch. Nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i ch\u1ec9 tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0y nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, hay n\u1ebfu b\u1ea1n th\u00edch, m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n ng\u1ee5 ng\u00f4n, trong \u0111\u00f3, b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 v\u00ed d\u1ee5 \u0111\u00e1ng noi theo, b\u1ea1n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u0169ng t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y nhi\u1ec1u v\u00ed d\u1ee5 kh\u00e1c m\u00e0 l\u1ebd ra kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean l\u00e0m theo; v\u00e0 v\u00ec v\u1eady t\u00f4i hy v\u1ecdng n\u00f3 s\u1ebd h\u1eefu \u00edch cho m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng g\u00e2y h\u1ea1i cho b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ai, v\u00e0 m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd bi\u1ebft \u01a1n t\u00f4i v\u00ec s\u1ef1 th\u1eb3ng th\u1eafn c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n

\u00d4ng nh\u00ecn tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 c\u1ea3 khoa h\u1ecdc v\u1edbi con m\u1eaft r\u1ea5t ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n:<\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, t\u00f4i s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i g\u00ec th\u00eam, ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb vi\u1ec7c khi t\u00f4i th\u1ea5y n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c trau d\u1ed3i qua nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u1ed7i l\u1ea1c nh\u1ea5t, v\u00e0 v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0o trong ph\u1ea1m vi c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n g\u00e2y tranh c\u00e3i, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 nghi ng\u1edd, t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng d\u00e1m d\u1ef1 \u0111o\u00e1n r\u1eb1ng th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh trong \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ebd l\u1edbn h\u01a1n ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c, v\u00e0 h\u01a1n n\u1eefa, khi t\u00f4i xem x\u00e9t s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u00e1c \u00fd ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200btr\u00e1i chi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 duy nh\u1ea5t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9, trong khi ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, t\u00f4i coi h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 g\u1ea7n nh\u01b0 sai l\u1ea7m.\u201d (Discourse on Method<\/em>, Volume I, Ph\u1ea7n I, \u0111o\u1ea1n 8)<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u00e1c, trong ch\u1eebng m\u1ef1c ch\u00fang vay m\u01b0\u1ee3n nguy\u00ean l\u00fd t\u1eeb tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, t\u00f4i quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng lung lay nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. C\u1ea3 danh v\u1ecdng l\u1eabn c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3i m\u00e0 ch\u00fang h\u1ee9a h\u1eb9n \u0111\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c t\u00f4i h\u1ecdc ch\u00fang. B\u1edfi v\u00ec ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i, t\u1ea1 \u01a1n Ch\u00faa, kh\u00f4ng b\u1eaft bu\u1ed9c t\u00f4i ph\u1ea3i gia t\u0103ng t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch bi\u1ebfn khoa h\u1ecdc th\u00e0nh ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p; v\u00e0 m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng t\u1ef1 nh\u1eadn l\u00e0 khinh th\u01b0\u1eddng vinh quang, nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Cynic, nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i l\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 r\u1ea5t th\u1ea5p vinh quang m\u00e0 t\u00f4i ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hy v\u1ecdng \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3 d\u1ed1i. Cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 t\u1ea1o, t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft r\u00f5 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c kh\u00f4ng d\u1ec5 b\u1ecb l\u1eeba b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi h\u1ee9a h\u1eb9n c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 gi\u1ea3 kim thu\u1eadt hay nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ti\u00ean \u0111o\u00e1n c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 chi\u00eam tinh, nh\u1eefng m\u00e1nh kh\u00f3e c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t \u1ea3o thu\u1eadt gia hay nh\u1eefng tr\u00f2 l\u1eeba b\u1ecbp v\u00e0 khoe khoang c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ef1 x\u01b0ng l\u00e0 bi\u1ebft nhi\u1ec1u h\u01a1n th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf. (Nh\u01b0 tr\u00ean<\/em>, \u0111o\u1ea1n 9)<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

T\u00ean \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m l\u00e0 \u201cLu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p d\u1eabn d\u1eaft l\u00fd tr\u00ed \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn v\u00e0 t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd trong khoa h\u1ecdc<\/em>\u201d.<\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh tr\u00ean khi\u1ebfn Descartes \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eeb b\u1ecf vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0103n ch\u01b0\u01a1ng \u201cv\u00e0 quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh kh\u00f4ng t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c ngo\u00e0i vi\u1ec7c t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n m\u00ecnh, ho\u1eb7c t\u1eeb cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi\u201d. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 so s\u00e1nh v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ng\u1ea1c nhi\u00ean c\u1ee7a Bacon r\u1eb1ng \u201ctrong s\u1ed1 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc danh ti\u1ebfng \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c c\u01a1 s\u1edf \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh ngh\u1ec1 chi\u1ebfm d\u1ee5ng, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n ch\u1ed7 cho vi\u1ec7c t\u1ef1 do trau d\u1ed3i ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc\u201d. \u00d4ng tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf n\u00e0y \u201ckh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 k\u00ecm h\u00e3m s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc m\u00e0 c\u00f2n g\u00e2y b\u1ea5t l\u1ee3i cho ch\u00ednh c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7\u201d. (Kearney,\u00a0The origins<\/em>)<\/p>\n

Kh\u00f3 ch\u1ecbu v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 l\u1ed9n x\u1ed9n \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn v\u00e0 m\u1eadp m\u1edd trong t\u01b0 duy, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh gi\u00fap l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf trong vi\u1ec7c t\u00ecm ra logic hay \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt trong vi\u1ec7c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng tri th\u1ee9c:<\/p>\n

(a) “Kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang, tr\u00e1nh v\u1ed9i v\u00e0ng v\u00e0 th\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng bao h\u00e0m b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec trong ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh ngo\u00e0i nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u00e0 r\u00e0nh m\u1ea1ch trong t\u00e2m tr\u00ed.”<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em>(b) “Chia m\u1ed7i kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n \u0111ang xem x\u00e9t th\u00e0nh c\u00e0ng nhi\u1ec1u ph\u1ea7n c\u00e0ng t\u1ed1t.”<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em>(c) “Lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n suy ngh\u0129 t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n v\u00e0 d\u1ec5 hi\u1ec3u nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u ph\u1ee9c t\u1ea1p h\u01a1n, s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp suy ngh\u0129 theo m\u1ed9t tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1 nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh ngay c\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u00e0 v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0 sau, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 \u1edf m\u1ecdi n\u01a1i.<\/em><\/p>\n

(d) “L\u1eadp danh s\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 v\u00e0 t\u1ed5ng quan \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn r\u1eb1ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec b\u1ecb b\u1ecf s\u00f3t.” (Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p, Ph\u1ea7n II)<\/em><\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi b\u1ed9c b\u1ea1ch c\u1edfi m\u1edf c\u1ee7a Descartes l\u00e0m t\u00f4i nh\u1edb \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111o\u1ea1n ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u sau \u0111\u00e2y c\u1ee7a Galen, b\u00e1c s\u0129 Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1ng v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 II sau C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m “V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean” c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng:<\/p>\n

“V\u00e0 khi \u0111\u1ebfn tu\u1ed5i v\u1ecb th\u00e0nh ni\u00ean s\u1edbm, anh ta ph\u1ea3i b\u1ecb m\u1ed9t t\u00ecnh y\u00eau m\u00e3nh li\u1ec7t x\u00e2m chi\u1ebfm \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1ed5i s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt, gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c truy\u1ec1n c\u1ea3m h\u1ee9ng, c\u1ea3 ng\u00e0y l\u1eabn \u0111\u00eam anh ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ng\u1eebng th\u00fac gi\u1ee5c, v\u00e0 c\u0103ng th\u1eb3ng b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u k\u1ef9 l\u01b0\u1ee1ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i ra b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. V\u00e0 khi anh ta \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y, th\u00ec trong m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian d\u00e0i anh ta ph\u1ea3i ki\u1ec3m tra v\u00e0 ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3, quan s\u00e1t ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0o \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0o kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edb\u1ec9 s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng; do \u0111\u00f3 anh ta s\u1ebd ch\u1ecdn \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y v\u00e0 quay l\u01b0ng l\u1ea1i v\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec1u kia. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, t\u00f4i hy v\u1ecdng r\u1eb1ng chuy\u00ean lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i s\u1ebd ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t.”<\/p>\n

\u0110\u00e2y c\u0169ng ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 ki\u1ec3u “Cartesian reflection”.<\/p>\n

IV<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

NG\u01af\u1edcI \u0110I T\u00ccM CH\u00c2N L\u00dd<\/span><\/p>\n

Ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n trong \u0111\u1eddi m\u00ecnh, ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1eb7t d\u1ea5u h\u1ecfi cho m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9.<\/span> (Descartes)<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Trong “Nguy\u00ean l\u00fd tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc”, Principles of Philosophy<\/em>, m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc duy l\u00fd v\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Descartes (1644), t\u1ea1i m\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean h\u1ebft, \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft:<\/p>\n

1. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n trong \u0111\u1eddi m\u00ecnh, ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1eb7t d\u1ea5u h\u1ecfi cho m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9, trong ch\u1eebng m\u1ef1c c\u00f3 th\u1ec3.<\/em><\/p>\n

V\u00ec ch\u00fang ta b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng t\u1eeb l\u00fac c\u00f2n l\u00e0 tr\u1ebb s\u01a1 sinh v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0a ra nhi\u1ec1u ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n kh\u00e1c nhau v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eb1ng gi\u00e1c quan tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi l\u00fd t\u00ednh ch\u00fang ta ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7, n\u00ean c\u00f3 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bng\u0103n c\u1ea3n ch\u00fang ta nh\u1eadn bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt. D\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1ch duy nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n kh\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bn\u00e0y l\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c, \u00edt nh\u1ea5t m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n trong \u0111\u1eddi, nghi ng\u1edd m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 m\u00e0 ta c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn d\u00f9 m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat nghi ng\u1edd v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn.<\/p>\n

6. Ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 \u00fd ch\u00ed t\u1ef1 do, cho ph\u00e9p ch\u00fang ta t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ed3ng t\u00ecnh trong nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 b\u1ecb nghi ng\u1edd, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 tr\u00e1nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c sai l\u1ea7m.<\/em><\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng d\u00f9 ai l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o ra ch\u00fang ta, v\u00e0 d\u00f9 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n n\u0103ng v\u00e0 x\u1ea3o quy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u00e2u, ch\u00fang ta v\u1eabn c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c trong m\u00ecnh lo\u1ea1i t\u1ef1 do lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n cho ph\u00e9p ch\u00fang ta lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n kh\u00f4ng tin v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn v\u00e0 ch\u01b0a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m ch\u1ee9ng k\u1ef9 l\u01b0\u1ee1ng. Do \u0111\u00f3, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ec1 ph\u00f2ng \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u00e1nh m\u1eafc sai l\u1ea7m trong m\u1ecdi tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p.<\/p>\n

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T\u00d4I T\u01af DUY, V\u1eacY T\u00d4I T\u1ed2N T\u1ea0I<\/span><\/p>\n

V\u1edbi t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ea7u tay “Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u01b0\u1edbng \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn l\u00fd tr\u00ed v\u00e0 t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd trong khoa h\u1ecdc<\/em>” (1637), c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 trong Suy ni\u1ec7m tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ti\u00ean kh\u1edfi<\/em> (1644), Descartes \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, “T\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy, do \u0111\u00f3 t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i”, kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3n ng\u00e3 t\u01b0 duy nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 phi v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc (res cogitans), m\u1ed9t l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi ho\u00e0i nghi n\u00e0o c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn. Ngay c\u1ea3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ho\u00e0i nghi ngoan c\u1ed1 v\u00e0 theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a h\u01b0 v\u00f4 nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 “T\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy, nh\u01b0ng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea3m b\u1ea3o r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i”. T\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3, Descartes r\u00fat ra c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc c\u1ee7a h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. N\u1ebfu t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng t\u01b0 duy, t\u00f4i s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 l\u00fd do \u0111\u1ec3 tin r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i; do \u0111\u00f3, t\u00f4i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 m\u00e0 to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy; v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i. \u0110i\u1ec1u t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 c\u0169ng \u0111\u00fang v\u1edbi m\u1ecdi con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. Nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, lu\u1eadn \u0111i\u1ec3m ch\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a Descartes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng v\u1edbi ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u00f3 Descartes \u0111i ti\u1ebfp xa h\u01a1n. \u00d4ng ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng trong t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t \u00fd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o. N\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eeb ch\u00ednh b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n ch\u00fang ta v\u00ec kh\u00f4ng ai trong ch\u00fang ta l\u00e0 ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o c\u1ea3, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t v\u1eadt ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o. Descartes cho r\u1eb1ng, l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch duy nh\u1ea5t cho \u00fd ni\u1ec7m ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta l\u00e0 n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gieo v\u00e0o t\u00e2m tr\u00ed ch\u00fang ta b\u1edfi m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea5ng ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o. \u00d4ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o n\u00e0y nh\u1ea5t thi\u1ebft ph\u1ea3i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 Ch\u00faa Tr\u1eddi (God), m\u1ed9t Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf c\u00f3 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t ch\u00e2n th\u1eadt, \u0110\u1ea5ng m\u00e0 t\u00f4i mang \u01a1n v\u00ec s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft suy ngh\u0129. V\u00ec v\u1eady, vi\u1ec7c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft trong h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a Descartes. M\u1ed9t khi \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa th\u00ec theo \u00f4ng, Ch\u00faa s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng cho ph\u00e9p ch\u00fang ta b\u1ecb l\u1eeba d\u1ed1i m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00f3 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng, v\u00e0 v\u00ec v\u1eady, mi\u1ec5n l\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p ki\u1ec3m tra s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt c\u1ea9n th\u1eadn v\u00e0 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh xem \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang hay sai, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn r\u1eb1ng k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e1ng tin c\u1eady.<\/p>\n

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THUY\u1ebeT NH\u1eca NGUY\u00caN T\u00c2M-TH\u00c2N (MIND-BODY)<\/span><\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ec1 t\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea3o lu\u1eadn s\u00f4i n\u1ed5i \u2013 cho \u0111\u1ebfn h\u00f4m nay v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a d\u1ee9t \u2013 l\u00e0 trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Suy ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ti\u00ean kh\u1edfi<\/em> (Meditations on the First Philosophy<\/em>, 1641), Descartes \u0111\u00e3 l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 thuy\u1ebft nh\u1ecb nguy\u00ean t\u00e2m-th\u00e2n (c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft nh\u1ecb nguy\u00ean v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t ho\u1eb7c thuy\u1ebft nh\u1ecb nguy\u00ean Cartesian), \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng cho r\u1eb1ng t\u00e2m tr\u00ed (hay linh h\u1ed3n) v\u00e0 th\u00e2n th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 hai th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 ri\u00eang bi\u1ec7t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1edbi nhau. T\u00e2m tr\u00ed kh\u00f4ng m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 suy ngh\u0129, c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng suy ngh\u0129\u2014v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e1c x\u1ea3y ra \u1edf b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn nh\u1ecf g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 tuy\u1ebfn t\u00f9ng (pineal gland) trong n\u00e3o, \u201cn\u01a1i tr\u00fa ng\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n\u201d m\u00e0 linh h\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt (animal spirits) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 trung gian \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u00e2n qu\u1ea3. \u201cT\u00f4i hi\u1ec3u r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t ch\u00ednh gi\u1eefa T\u00e2m v\u00e0 Th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i n\u1eb1m \u1edf ch\u1ed7, Th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t l\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n chia, nh\u01b0ng T\u00e2m c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n chia\u2026 V\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 ri\u00eang \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y (n\u1ebfu t\u00f4i bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c) c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 cho t\u00f4i bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i.\u201d<\/p>\n

Tuy c\u00e1i t\u00f4i ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c, nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 g\u1eafn li\u1ec1n v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t c\u01a1 th\u1ec3, v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 khi g\u1eafn li\u1ec1n v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t c\u01a1 th\u1ec3, ta m\u1edbi h\u00ecnh dung n\u00f3 nh\u01b0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. V\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 khi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, t\u00f4i m\u1edbi khao kh\u00e1t s\u1ef1 l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean (c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i), v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 khi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, t\u00f4i m\u1edbi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u00f3.\u00a0N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n th\u00ec ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. V\u00e0 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, d\u00f9 h\u1eefu sinh hay v\u00f4 sinh, c\u0169ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y. Khi linh h\u1ed3n h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c th\u00ec m\u1edbi c\u00f3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi.<\/p>\n

Ch\u1ec9 th\u00f4ng qua s\u1ef1 h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t n\u00e0y, linh h\u1ed3n m\u1edbi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u00ean th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c, t\u00e2m tr\u00ed m\u1edbi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. B\u1edfi v\u00ec con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 sinh v\u1eadt duy nh\u1ea5t c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t th\u1ef1c ch\u1ea5t gi\u1eefa t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c, n\u00ean con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 sinh v\u1eadt duy nh\u1ea5t c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Do \u0111\u00f3, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u0169ng l\u00e0 sinh v\u1eadt duy nh\u1ea5t c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng t\u1ef1 l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n m\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cth\u1ec3 x\u00e1c c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i\u201d.<\/p>\n

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M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng minh h\u1ecda quan ni\u1ec7m Cartesian c\u1ee7a m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa linh h\u1ed3n v\u00e0 c\u01a1 th\u1ec3. Tuy\u1ebfn t\u00f9ng (pineal gland, \u0111i\u1ec3m F trong \u1ea3nh) cung c\u1ea5p m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 c\u1ed1t y\u1ebfu gi\u1eefa c\u01a1 th\u1ebf, c\u00e1i ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng tr\u00ean c\u01a1 s\u1edf c\u01a1 gi\u1edbi, v\u00e0 linh h\u1ed3n, c\u00e1i phi-v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t.<\/p>\n

Trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> v\u00e0 c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m sau n\u00e0y, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c gi\u00e1c quan. Ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 mang t\u00ednh c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc. D\u1eef li\u1ec7u c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c truy\u1ec1n t\u1eeb c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c \u0111\u1ebfn n\u00e3o th\u00f4ng qua c\u00e1c \u1ed1ng d\u1eabn m\u00e0 qua \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1c linh h\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt l\u01b0u th\u00f4ng. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 linh h\u1ed3n, Descartes vi\u1ebft, \u201cg\u1eafn li\u1ec1n v\u1edbi to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 c\u01a1 th\u1ec3, nh\u01b0ng v\u1eabn c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u00e0 \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 n\u00f3 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1c ch\u1ee9c n\u0103ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ph\u1ea7n kh\u00e1c.\u201d\u00a0Ph\u1ea7n c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 n\u01a1i linh h\u1ed3n th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1c ch\u1ee9c n\u0103ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp “kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 tim, c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 n\u00e3o, m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n s\u00e2u b\u00ean trong nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tuy\u1ebfn r\u1ea5t nh\u1ecf n\u1eb1m \u1edf gi\u1eefa m\u00f4 c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c treo l\u01a1 l\u1eedng ph\u00eda tr\u00ean \u1ed1ng d\u1eabn m\u00e0 qua \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1c linh h\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt trong c\u00e1c khoang ph\u00eda tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 th\u00f4ng v\u1edbi khoang ph\u00eda sau n\u00e0y, do \u0111\u00f3 nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng nh\u1ecf nh\u1ea5t di\u1ec5n ra trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m thay \u0111\u1ed5i r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u h\u01b0\u1edbng \u0111i c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c linh h\u1ed3n n\u00e0y.”<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\u00dd CH\u00cd T\u1ef0 DO (FREE WILL)<\/span><\/p>\n

L\u00fd t\u00ednh l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 quan tr\u1ecdng h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u trong v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y, \u0111\u1ef1\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i, ngay trong h\u00e0ng ng\u0169 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, nh\u01b0ng v\u1edbi th\u1eddi gian n\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb l\u00e0m h\u01b0 h\u1ecfng, lu m\u1edd hay m\u1ea5t t\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng. Descartes cho r\u1eb1ng, l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb l\u1ec7 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn. Trong b\u00e0i Suy ni\u1ec7m th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t<\/em>, \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft:<\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ed5 x\u01b0a v\u00e0 ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn v\u1eabn th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean quay tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i trong t\u00e2m tr\u00ed t\u00f4i, th\u00f3i quen l\u00e2u \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0 quen thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e3 cho ch\u00fang quy\u1ec1n chi\u1ebfm gi\u1eef t\u00e2m tr\u00ed t\u00f4i tr\u00e1i v\u1edbi \u00fd mu\u1ed1n c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i v\u00e0 khi\u1ebfn ch\u00fang g\u1ea7n nh\u01b0 chi ph\u1ed1i ni\u1ec1m tin c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i.<\/p>\n

Cho n\u00ean ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u201cb\u1ecb chi ph\u1ed1i b\u1edfi th\u00f3i quen x\u1ea5u\u201d v\u00e0 \u201cxa r\u1eddi ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn v\u1ec1 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\u201d. N\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta mu\u1ed1n c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c (ho\u1eb7c l\u1ea5y l\u1ea1i) kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh l\u00e0nh m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, n\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta mu\u1ed1n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1eb7t ni\u1ec1m tin kh\u00f4ng nghi ng\u1edd v\u00e0o kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ph\u00e1n \u0111o\u00e1n c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh, th\u00ec, Descartes n\u00f3i, tr\u01b0\u1edbc h\u1ebft ch\u00fang ta ph\u1ea3i xua tan s\u1ef1 chi ph\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a \u201cnh\u1eefng quan \u0111i\u1ec3m ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn\u201d v\u00e0 ph\u00e1 v\u1ee1 s\u1ef1 th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a \u201cth\u00f3i quen x\u1ea5u\u201d. B\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch n\u00e0o? Descartes n\u00f3i b\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 nghi ng\u1edd c\u00f3 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng<\/em> ph\u00e1p n\u00f3i \u1edf tr\u00ean. N\u00f3 s\u1ebd gi\u00fap ch\u00fang ta ra kh\u1ecfi quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c chi ph\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 \u00e1p \u0111\u1eb7t th\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn.<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ec3 l\u00e0m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3, ch\u00fang ta ph\u1ea3i s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u00fd ch\u00ed t\u1ef1 do<\/em> m\u00e0 Ch\u00faa \u0111\u00e3 ban cho. Ch\u00ednh vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1ef1 do cho s\u1ef1 nghi ng\u1edd c\u00f3 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p m\u1edbi thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecnh th\u1ebf, gi\u00fap gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t ch\u00fang ta kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn.<\/p>\n

N\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng Descartes l\u00e0 “T\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy” (cogito). Nh\u01b0ng Cogito \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 v\u1eadn d\u1ee5ng \u00fd ch\u00ed t\u1ef1 do, b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh l\u00fd t\u00ednh. Kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n nh\u1ea5t trong quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a Descartes n\u1eb1m \u1edf kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. B\u1edfi v\u00ec Descartes cho r\u1eb1ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh b\u1ecb r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c v\u00e0 c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng v\u00e0 x\u00e1c th\u1ef1c; r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng v\u00e0 x\u00e1c th\u1ef1c th\u00f4ng qua vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nghi ng\u1edd c\u00f3 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p; v\u00e0 r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 nghi ng\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n tr\u1eeb khi ta mu\u1ed1n n\u00f3 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n. Do \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng, b\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eefng h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf do \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn g\u00e2y ra, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng b\u1edfi vi\u1ec7c s\u1edf h\u1eefu y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 t\u1ef1 do. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y mang l\u1ea1i cho t\u1ef1 do m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb tr\u00ed th\u1eadm ch\u00ed c\u00f2n c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n h\u01a1n c\u1ea3 v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a cogito (t\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy), b\u1edfi v\u00ec ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cogito, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng v\u00e0 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a l\u00fd tr\u00ed, n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a \u00fd ch\u00ed t\u1ef1 do.<\/p>\n

Ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng m\u00ecnh n\u1ebfu thi\u1ebfu t\u1ef1 do, ch\u00fang ta ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ef1 do b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. V\u00ec Descartes cho r\u1eb1ng ch\u00ednh vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1ef1 do, s\u1ef1 nghi ng\u1edd c\u00f3 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p m\u1edbi gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t ch\u00fang ta kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn, n\u00ean d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u00f4ng \u0111ang n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng th\u00f4ng qua t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, ch\u00fang ta t\u1ef1 gi\u1ea3i tho\u00e1t m\u00ecnh kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c.<\/p>\n

M\u1ed9t khi tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c b\u1edfi \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn, ch\u00fang ta m\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 “t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t” (\u201cliberty of spontaneity\u201d), hay t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i” (“liberty of opportunity”). L\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea1t t\u1edbi tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i “t\u1ef1 quy\u1ebft” (self-determination) v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7 (autonomous). (Schouls, Descartes and Enlightenment<\/em>, 40-41)<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng cho qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh ra kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c v\u00e0 c\u00f3 n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c ph\u00e1n x\u00e9t, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd ch\u00fang ta c\u1ea7n m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i khai s\u00e1ng kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Kant: d\u00e1m bi\u1ebft, d\u00e1m h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi, sapere aude, v\u00e0 h\u00e3y s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 d\u1eabn d\u1eaft c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. Tri th\u1ee9c m\u1edbi m\u00e0 ta thu l\u01b0\u1ee3m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c qua t\u1ef1 h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 gi\u00fap ta nh\u00ecn l\u1ea1i v\u00e0 so s\u00e1nh v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt c\u0169 hay hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecbnh ki\u1ebfn c\u00f3 t\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng \u0111ang k\u1ec1m h\u00e3m.<\/p>\n

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V<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

NG\u01af\u1edcI V\u00c0 M\u00c1Y<\/span><\/p>\n

\u0110\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t trong m\u1ed9t m\u1ee5c, Descartes c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng, h\u00e0nh vi con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 xu h\u01b0\u1edbng cho th\u1ea5y h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chi ph\u1ed1i b\u1edfi m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc phi-c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc. <\/em>\u00d4ng l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 suy ngh\u0129 ho\u1eb7c s\u1edf h\u1eefu m\u1ed9t t\u00e2m tr\u00ed c\u00f3 \u00fd th\u1ee9c. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m linh h\u1ed3n phi v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1edbi c\u00f3. \u0110\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e1o c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, Descartes \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t hai b\u00e0i ki\u1ec3m tra \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y ti\u00ean ti\u1ebfn ti\u1ec1m n\u0103ng: m\u1ed9t c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ec3 th\u00edch \u1ee9ng v\u1edbi m\u1ecdi t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng, v\u00e0 n\u00f3 s\u1ebd thi\u1ebfu kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng suy lu\u1eadn t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec3 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng trong m\u1ecdi t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 ti\u1ec1n th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a B\u00e0i ki\u1ec3m tra Turing<\/em> hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. \u00d4ng vi\u1ebft trong Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>:<\/p>\n

T\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng n\u1ebfu b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y n\u00e0o nh\u01b0 v\u1eady c\u00f3 c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan v\u00e0 h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t con kh\u1ec9 ho\u1eb7c m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt kh\u00e1c thi\u1ebfu l\u00fd t\u00ednh, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 c\u00e1ch n\u00e0o bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n c\u00f3 c\u00f9ng b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt \u0111\u00f3; trong khi \u0111\u00f3, n\u1ebfu b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y n\u00e0o nh\u01b0 v\u1eady c\u00f3 h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng gi\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 ch\u00fang ta v\u00e0 b\u1eaft ch\u01b0\u1edbc h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta c\u00e0ng s\u00e1t nh\u01b0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 v\u1ec1 m\u1ecdi m\u1eb7t th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, ch\u00fang ta v\u1eabn s\u1ebd c\u00f3 hai c\u00e1ch r\u1ea5t ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn \u0111\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1eadt. Th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t, ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1eeb ng\u1eef, ho\u1eb7c k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p c\u00e1c d\u1ea5u hi\u1ec7u kh\u00e1c, nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta l\u00e0m \u0111\u1ec3 b\u00e0y t\u1ecf suy ngh\u0129 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. B\u1edfi v\u00ec ch\u00fang ta ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 h\u00ecnh dung ra m\u1ed9t c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ebf t\u1ea1o sao cho n\u00f3 ph\u00e1t ra t\u1eeb ng\u1eef, v\u00e0 th\u1eadm ch\u00ed ph\u00e1t ra nh\u1eefng t\u1eeb ng\u1eef t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u1ee9ng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 g\u00e2y ra s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i trong c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 (v\u00ed d\u1ee5: n\u1ebfu b\u1ea1n ch\u1ea1m v\u00e0o n\u00f3 \u1edf m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec3m, n\u00f3 s\u1ebd h\u1ecfi b\u1ea1n mu\u1ed1n g\u00ec, n\u1ebfu b\u1ea1n ch\u1ea1m v\u00e0o n\u00f3 \u1edf m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec3m kh\u00e1c, n\u00f3 s\u1ebd k\u00eau l\u00ean r\u1eb1ng b\u1ea1n \u0111ang l\u00e0m \u0111au n\u00f3, v.v.). Nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u1ed5i m\u1ed9t c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y nh\u01b0 v\u1eady l\u1ea1i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o ra c\u00e1c c\u00e1ch s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp t\u1eeb ng\u1eef kh\u00e1c nhau \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a ra c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eb7t n\u00f3, nh\u01b0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi k\u00e9m th\u00f4ng minh nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. Th\u1ee9 hai, ngay c\u1ea3 khi nh\u1eefng c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y nh\u01b0 v\u1eady c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 vi\u1ec7c t\u1ed1t nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta l\u00e0m, ho\u1eb7c th\u1eadm ch\u00ed t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n, ch\u00fang ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn s\u1ebd th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i trong nh\u1eefng vi\u1ec7c kh\u00e1c, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y s\u1ebd cho th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i th\u00f4ng qua s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean s\u1ef1 s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang. B\u1edfi v\u00ec trong khi l\u00fd t\u00ednh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 ph\u1ed5 qu\u00e1t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trong m\u1ecdi t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng, th\u00ec c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan n\u00e0y (c\u1ee7a c\u1ed5 m\u00e1y) c\u1ea7n m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 cho m\u1ed7i h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3; do \u0111\u00f3, v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o m\u1ed9t c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ee7 c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan kh\u00e1c nhau \u0111\u1ec3 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng trong m\u1ecdi t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng theo c\u00e1ch m\u00e0 l\u00fd t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta khi\u1ebfn ch\u00fang ta h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng.<\/p>\n

Ch\u1ec9 b\u1eb1ng hai c\u00e1ch n\u00e0y, ch\u00fang ta c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e0 th\u00fa. B\u1edfi l\u1ebd, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e1ng ch\u00fa \u00fd l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ed9n hay ngu d\u1ed1t \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c \u2013 k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i\u00ean \u2013 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp c\u00e1c t\u1eeb ng\u1eef l\u1ea1i v\u1edbi nhau v\u00e0 t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh c\u00e2u \u0111\u1ec3 di\u1ec5n \u0111\u1ea1t suy ngh\u0129 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh; trong khi \u0111\u00f3, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c, d\u00f9 ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o v\u00e0 t\u00e0i gi\u1ecfi \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u00e2u, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i v\u00ec ch\u00fang thi\u1ebfu c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft, b\u1edfi v\u00ec ch\u00fang ta th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng chim \u00e1c v\u00e0 v\u1eb9t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u00e1t ra \u00e2m thanh nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta, nh\u01b0ng ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta: ngh\u0129a l\u00e0, ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang \u0111ang ngh\u0129 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ch\u00fang \u0111ang n\u00f3i. M\u1eb7t kh\u00e1c, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi sinh ra b\u1ecb \u0111i\u1ebfc v\u00e0 c\u00e2m, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 b\u1ecb t\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111o\u1ea1t c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan ph\u00e1t \u00e2m gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 th\u00fa ho\u1eb7c th\u1eadm ch\u00ed nhi\u1ec1u h\u01a1n, th\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1ef1 t\u1ea1o ra c\u00e1c d\u1ea5u hi\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a ri\u00eang m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean \u1edf b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh h\u1ecd v\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1eddi gian h\u1ecdc ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 cho th\u1ea5y th\u00fa c\u00f3 \u00edt l\u00fd t\u00ednh h\u01a1n ng\u01b0\u1eddi, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n cho th\u1ea5y ch\u00fang ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 l\u00fd t\u00ednh. B\u1edfi v\u00ec r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng ch\u1ec9 c\u1ea7n r\u1ea5t \u00edt l\u00fd t\u00ednh l\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c; V\u00e0 b\u1edfi v\u00ec s\u1ef1 b\u1ea5t b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quan s\u00e1t th\u1ea5y gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 gi\u1eefa con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt d\u1ec5 hu\u1ea5n luy\u1ec7n h\u01a1n nh\u1eefng lo\u00e0i kh\u00e1c, n\u00ean th\u1eadt kh\u00f3 tin r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t c\u00e1 th\u1ec3 \u01b0u t\u00fa c\u1ee7a lo\u00e0i kh\u1ec9 ho\u1eb7c v\u1eb9t l\u1ea1i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i t\u1ed1t nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb ng\u1ed1c ngh\u1ebfch nh\u1ea5t – ho\u1eb7c \u00edt nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 t\u1ed1t nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb c\u00f3 n\u00e3o b\u1ed9 khi\u1ebfm khuy\u1ebft – n\u1ebfu t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi ch\u00fang ta. V\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn l\u1eddi n\u00f3i v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n c\u1ea3m x\u00fac v\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eaft ch\u01b0\u1edbc b\u1edfi m\u00e1y m\u00f3c c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt. Ch\u00fang ta c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean ngh\u0129, gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi x\u01b0a, r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c lo\u00e0i th\u00fa bi\u1ebft n\u00f3i, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng hi\u1ec3u ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang. B\u1edfi v\u00ec n\u1ebfu \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang, th\u00ec v\u00ec ch\u00fang c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u c\u01a1 quan t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u1ee9ng v\u1edbi c\u01a1 quan c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta, ch\u00fang c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 khi\u1ebfn ch\u00fang ta c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ed3ng lo\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. M\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf r\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e1ng ch\u00fa \u00fd kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 nhi\u1ec1u lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n k\u1ef9 n\u0103ng t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n ch\u00fang ta trong m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang, nh\u01b0ng ch\u00ednh nh\u1eefng lo\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt \u0111\u00f3 l\u1ea1i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n k\u1ef9 n\u0103ng n\u00e0o c\u1ea3 trong nhi\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng kh\u00e1c; v\u00ec v\u1eady, nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ch\u00fang l\u00e0m t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang c\u00f3 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh, b\u1edfi v\u00ec n\u1ebfu \u0111\u00fang nh\u01b0 v\u1eady th\u00ec ch\u00fang s\u1ebd c\u00f3 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh h\u01a1n b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ai trong ch\u00fang ta v\u00e0 s\u1ebd v\u01b0\u1ee3t tr\u1ed9i h\u01a1n ch\u00fang ta trong m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9. \u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf \u0111\u00fang h\u01a1n r\u1eb1ng ch\u00fang ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh, v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u00ean ch\u00fang theo s\u1ef1 s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan. C\u0169ng nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, m\u1ed9t chi\u1ebfc \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u1ed3, ch\u1ec9 g\u1ed3m c\u00e1c b\u00e1nh r\u0103ng v\u00e0 l\u00f2 xo, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ebfm gi\u1edd v\u00e0 \u0111o th\u1eddi gian ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c h\u01a1n ch\u00fang ta v\u1edbi t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n

Sau \u0111\u00f3, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 linh h\u1ed3n c\u00f3 l\u00fd t\u00ednh (reasonable soul) v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng, kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u kh\u00e1c m\u00e0 t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn, n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh t\u1eeb ti\u1ec1m n\u0103ng c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t b\u1eb1ng b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 c\u00e1ch n\u00e0o, m\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t. V\u00e0 t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c n\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n tr\u00fa ng\u1ee5 trong c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi nh\u01b0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e1i t\u00e0u trong con t\u00e0u c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb c\u00f3 l\u1ebd \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n c\u00e1c chi, l\u00e0 ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ee7, m\u00e0 n\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1eafn k\u1ebft v\u00e0 h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd h\u01a1n v\u1edbi c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ec3, ngo\u00e0i kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng v\u1eadn \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e0y, c\u00f2n c\u00f3 c\u1ea3m x\u00fac v\u00e0 ham mu\u1ed1n gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 linh h\u1ed3n, v\u00ec n\u00f3 v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng quan tr\u1ecdng. B\u1edfi v\u00ec sau sai l\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn Ch\u00faa, m\u00e0 t\u00f4i tin r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec d\u1eabn d\u1eaft nh\u1eefng t\u00e2m tr\u00ed y\u1ebfu \u0111u\u1ed1i \u0111i xa kh\u1ecfi con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ngay th\u1eb3ng c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ea1nh h\u01a1n l\u00e0 vi\u1ec7c t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng r\u1eb1ng linh h\u1ed3n c\u1ee7a lo\u00e0i th\u00fa c\u00f3 c\u00f9ng b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t v\u1edbi linh h\u1ed3n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3 sau cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i n\u00e0y ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec ph\u1ea3i s\u1ee3 h\u00e3i hay hy v\u1ecdng, c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 ru\u1ed3i v\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn. Nh\u01b0ng khi ch\u00fang ta bi\u1ebft lo\u00e0i th\u00fa kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c n\u00e0o, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd hi\u1ec3u r\u00f5 h\u01a1n nh\u1eefng l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng linh h\u1ed3n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1edbi th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c, v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3, n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ebft c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c. V\u00e0 v\u00ec ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c h\u1ee7y di\u1ec7t linh h\u1ed3n, n\u00ean ch\u00fang ta t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean \u0111i \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 b\u1ea5t t\u1eed.<\/p>\n

\n

(Selected Writings<\/em>, Ph\u1ea7n V, 44-46)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

Nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u tr\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Descartes vi\u1ebft g\u1ea7n b\u1ed1n th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc, v\u00e0 300 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc Alan Turing<\/strong>. N\u0103m nay k\u1ef7 ni\u1ec7m 430 n\u0103m ng\u00e0y sinh c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. C\u01a1 th\u1ec3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Descartes cho l\u00e0 c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y do Ch\u00faa thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf. Nh\u01b0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i trong Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>, c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u201ct\u1ea1o ra b\u1edfi b\u00e0n tay c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1 t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y n\u00e0o do con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ebf t\u1ea1o, v\u00e0 ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng trong ch\u00ednh n\u00f3 nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng k\u1ef3 di\u1ec7u h\u01a1n b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 c\u1ed7 m\u00e1y n\u00e0o nh\u01b0 v\u1eady.” (Selected Writings<\/em>, 43)<\/p>\n

VI<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

KH\u00d4NG GIAN V\u00c0 V\u1eacT CH\u1ea4T (Descartes v\u00e0 Einstein)<\/span><\/p>\n

Trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Principles of Philosophy<\/em>, Ph\u1ea7n II, Article (M\u1ee5c) 11, Descartes kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh:<\/p>\n

11. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 gi\u1eefa kh\u00f4ng gian v\u00e0 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t h\u1eefu h\u00ecnh<\/em>.<\/p>\n

N\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta lo\u1ea1i b\u1ecf kh\u1ecfi m\u1ed9t vi\u00ean s\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ed9 c\u1ee9ng, m\u00e0u s\u1eafc, \u0111\u1ed9 n\u1eb7ng, t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t l\u1ea1nh v\u00e0 n\u00f3ng c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m ch\u1ea5t t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c th\u00ec<\/p>\n

“ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng trong \u00fd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 h\u00f2n \u0111\u00e1 ch\u1eb3ng c\u00f2n g\u00ec ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb vi\u1ec7c n\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ee9 g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng theo chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i, chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 chi\u1ec1u s\u00e2u. Tuy nhi\u00ean, \u0111\u00e2y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec bao h\u00e0m trong \u00fd ni\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 kh\u00f4ng gian<\/em> – kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t kh\u00f4ng gian ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ea7y c\u00e1c v\u1eadt th\u1ec3, m\u00e0 ngay c\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t kh\u00f4ng gian \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ‘tr\u1ed1ng r\u1ed7ng’.” (Selected Writings, Principles of Philosophy<\/em>, 193)<\/p>\n

M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng h\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 r\u1ea5t th\u00fa v\u1ecb c\u1ee7a thuy\u1ebft t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i r\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a Einstein n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng, khi kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t n\u1eefa, th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng gian c\u0169ng bi\u1ebfn m\u1ea5t theo. \u00d4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi Descartes r\u1eb1ng kh\u00f4ng gian kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i v\u1eadt l\u00fd \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m kh\u00f4ng gian r\u1ed7ng m\u1ed9t m\u00ecnh nh\u01b0 s\u00e2n kh\u1ea5u.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng sai l\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a Descartes l\u00e0 tin r\u1eb1ng nguy\u00ean t\u1eed, nh\u1eefng h\u1ea1t nh\u1ecf nh\u1ea5t c\u1ea5u t\u1ea1o v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t kh\u00f4ng chia c\u1eaft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u1eefa, l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i:<\/p>\n

20. C\u00e1c k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 n\u00eau tr\u00ean c\u0169ng ch\u1ee9ng minh s\u1ef1 b\u1ea5t kh\u1ea3 thi c\u1ee7a (s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a) c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eed.<\/em><\/p>\n

(Principles of Philosophy<\/em>, trang 197, Selected Writings<\/em>).<\/p>\n\"\"\n

Salon c\u1ee7a\u00a0Madame Geoffrin 1755 quy t\u1ee5 nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 khai s\u00e1ng Ph\u00e1p. Tranh c\u1ee7a ngh\u1ec7 s\u0129 Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier. Trong \u1ea3nh c\u00f3 <\/span><\/span>Jean d’Alembert, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, m\u1ed9t t\u01b0\u1ee3ng b\u00e1n th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a Voltaire, \u00a0Fran\u00e7ois Quesnay, Denis Diderot, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Montesquieu, Jean le Rond d’Alembert, \u00c9tienne Bonnot de Condillac, Comte de Buffon. <\/span>C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 xem chi ti\u1ebft c\u00e1c c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n \u1edf link n\u00e0y https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Salon_de_Madame_Geoffrin.jpg<\/a><\/p>\n

 <\/p><\/blockquote>\n

VII<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

H\u00ccNH H\u1eccC (LA G\u00c9OM\u00c9TRIE)<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\" [H\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch], h\u01a1n b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 suy \u0111o\u00e1n si\u00eau h\u00ecnh n\u00e0o c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho t\u00ean tu\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a Descartes tr\u1edf n\u00ean b\u1ea5t h\u1ee7, v\u00e0 l\u00e0 b\u01b0\u1edbc ti\u1ebfn v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t t\u1eebng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n trong s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c khoa h\u1ecdc ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c<\/em><\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014John Stuart Mill<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt, h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch \u0111\u00e3 c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng h\u00f3a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

\u2013 Morris Kline, nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc M\u1ef9, n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u l\u1ecbch s\u1eed to\u00e1n<\/em><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch, nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc duy l\u00fd. M\u1ed9t g\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1eb7t c\u01b0\u01a1ng ngh\u1ecb.<\/p>\n\"\"\n

Trang \u0111\u1ea7u, T\u1eadp m\u1ed9t, c\u1ee7a t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m La G\u00e9om\u00e9trie<\/em><\/p>\n

To\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 v\u1ecb tr\u00ed \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t trong t\u01b0 duy c\u1ee7a Descartes, m\u00e0 n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3, Descartes kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 Descartes. To\u00e1n h\u1ecdc th\u1ef1c ra \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 trong gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c khai ph\u00f3ng t\u1eeb x\u01b0a, n\u1eb1m trong b\u1ed1n m\u00f4n khoa h\u1ecdc quadrivium<\/em>. To\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m H\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Euclid, t\u1eebng l\u00e0 s\u00e1ch g\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ea7u gi\u01b0\u1eddng trong gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng d\u00f2ng T\u00ean. To\u00e1n h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m n\u00ean l\u00fd t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y xuy\u00ean su\u1ed1t l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 k\u00e9o d\u00e0i cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1eddi Einstein. Nh\u01b0ng \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y, Descartes l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o ra h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch, k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1. N\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 h\u1eefu \u00edch cho to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, khoa h\u1ecdc, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n cho n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng t\u01b0 duy c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. Nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u l\u1ecbch s\u1eed to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc Morris Kline cho r\u1eb1ng, “V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt, h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch \u0111\u00e3 c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng h\u00f3a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc.” (Kline, Mathematics<\/em>, 51)<\/p>\n

T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m H\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc<\/em> c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n ri\u00eang, m\u00e0 n\u1eb1m trong ph\u1ea7n Ph\u1ee5 l\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>, chung v\u1edbi\u00a0La dioptrique<\/em>, ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng \u1ea5n ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt kh\u00fac x\u1ea1 (\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Willebrord Snell ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3), v\u00e0 Les m\u00e9t\u00e9ores<\/em>, bao g\u1ed3m, trong s\u1ed1 nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 kh\u00e1c, l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u00f3 t\u00ednh th\u1ecfa \u0111\u00e1ng v\u1ec1 c\u1ea7u v\u1ed3ng. \u1ea4n b\u1ea3n g\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ghi t\u00ean t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3, nh\u01b0ng t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i.<\/p>\n

Ngay t\u1eeb khi c\u00f2n \u1edf tu\u1ed5i teen, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 say m\u00ea nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n t\u1eeb b\u1ecf m\u1ecdi s\u1edf th\u00edch kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec3 theo \u0111u\u1ed5i n\u00f3, v\u00e0 \u1edf tu\u1ed5i 21, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 n\u1eafm v\u1eefng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn. Trong s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n \u0111\u00eam ng\u00e0y 10 th\u00e1ng 11 n\u0103m 1619, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 m\u01a1 th\u1ea5y Thi\u00ean th\u1ea7n Ch\u00e2n l\u00fd hi\u1ec7n ra v\u1edbi \u00f4ng v\u00e0 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh ni\u1ec1m tin v\u1ed1n \u0111\u00e3 s\u00e2u s\u1eafc trong t\u00e2m tr\u00ed \u00f4ng r\u1eb1ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 ch\u00eca kh\u00f3a duy nh\u1ea5t c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec3 m\u1edf kh\u00f3a nh\u1eefng b\u00ed m\u1eadt c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i Descartes v\u1ec1 sau c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c ng\u00e0y \u0111\u00f3 nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e1nh d\u1ea5u b\u01b0\u1edbc ngo\u1eb7t quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh trong s\u1ef1 nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. (Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations<\/em>, 96-97).<\/p>\n

Tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1ec1 vai tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc trong vi\u1ec7c gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch v\u1eadt l\u00fd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c di\u1ec5n t\u1ea3 nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>\n

\u201cT\u00f4i cho r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh ch\u1eb3ng bi\u1ebft g\u00ec v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt l\u00fd n\u1ebfu ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o, m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 kh\u00e1c \u0111i. B\u1edfi v\u00ec, khi \u0111\u00e3 quy gi\u1ea3n v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u1ec1 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, vi\u1ec7c ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 gi\u1edd \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u00e3 kh\u1ea3 thi, v\u00e0 t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 trong ph\u1ea1m vi ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c h\u1ea1n h\u1eb9p c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.\u201d<\/p>\n

V\u1edbi nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi n\u00e0y, nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u s\u1eed khoa h\u1ecdc Crombie n\u00f3i, Ren\u00e9 Descartes \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh “m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 17”. Trong khi v\u1eadt l\u00fd h\u1ecdc Aristotle l\u1ea5y \u201ch\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c\u201d (forms) v\u00e0 \u201ct\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t\u201d (qualities) l\u1ea7m g\u1ed1c, \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u00f5 c\u1ee5t trong vi\u1ec7c gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, Descartes kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh \u201c\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u00e0 c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n\u201d r\u1eb1ng th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u01a1 ch\u1ebf thu\u1ea7n t\u00fay (sheer mechanism) v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng g\u00ec kh\u00e1c, v\u00e0 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y, ch\u00ednh to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 can thi\u1ec7p. Trong h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u tr\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1ed3n nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Descartes, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt \u0111\u1ec3 bi\u1ec3u di\u1ec5n c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt n\u00e0y b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1. Nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft: x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng t\u1eeb s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc t\u1ed1i thi\u1ec3u m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng bao qu\u00e1t t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft v\u00e0 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 ra nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n m\u1edbi.<\/p>\n

To\u00e1n h\u1ecdc thu\u1ea7n t\u00fay ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u1ed9 khung. Ph\u1ea7n th\u1ecbt, m\u00e1u v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 s\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc n\u1eb1m \u1edf nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta l\u00e0m v\u1edbi n\u00f3. To\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a (lo\u1ea1i to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc kh\u00e1c c\u0169ng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i) ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 nh\u1eefng m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch m\u00e0, theo l\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Descartes, bi\u1ebfn con ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00e0nh ch\u1ee7 nh\u00e2n v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1edf h\u1eefu c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. \u00dd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc n\u1eb1m ngo\u00e0i to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc thu\u1ea7n t\u00fay, c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 \u00fd ngh\u0129a c\u1ee7a v\u0103n h\u1ecdc hay n\u1eb1m ngo\u00e0i nh\u1eefng t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p t\u1eeb ng\u1eef tr\u00ean gi\u1ea5y. \u0110\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ph\u1ea3i bi\u1ebft t\u1ea1i sao m\u00ecnh mu\u1ed1n c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3, n\u00f3 c\u00f3 li\u00ean quan g\u00ec \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 kh\u00e1c v\u00e0 m\u00ecnh c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m g\u00ec v\u1edbi n\u00f3. (A. C. Crombie, Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 4, trong Kline, Mathematics in the Modern World<\/em>)<\/p>\n

Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba t\u1eeb l\u00e2u \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng: Galileo, Descartes, Mersenne, Torricelli, Huygens v\u00e0 Leibniz l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd. \u1ede Anh, nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ebfn t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i mu\u1ed9n. Francis Bacon, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp, kh\u00f4ng quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u. V\u00e0 d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc Anh gi\u1eefa th\u1eddi Bacon v\u00e0 Newton c\u0169ng v\u1eady. V\u00ed d\u1ee5, Robert Boyle \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed1i vi\u1ec7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc trong khoa h\u1ecdc th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 n\u0103ng khi\u1ebfu to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh \u00f4ng c\u0169ng \u0111ang g\u00e2y tranh c\u00e3i. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 Thanh gi\u00e1o (Anh) \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng nhi\u00ean l\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 Hobbes v\u00e0 Wallis, nh\u01b0ng h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh trong nh\u1eefng ng\u00e0y \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a H\u1ed9i Ho\u00e0ng gia \u0111\u1ec1u tr\u00e1nh xa l\u1ed1i suy lu\u1eadn logic ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd, h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a ph\u00e1i Descartes, m\u00e0 \u01b0a chu\u1ed9ng c\u00e1ch ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn th\u1eadn tr\u1ecdng, th\u1ef1c d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m h\u01a1n, trong \u0111\u00f3 ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00edch l\u0169y t\u1eebng ch\u00fat m\u1ed9t v\u00e0 hi\u1ebfm khi \u0111\u00fang m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf.<\/p>\n

Trong hai ph\u1ea7n ba cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII, n\u01b0\u1edbc Ph\u00e1p l\u00e0 trung t\u00e2m to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 tranh c\u00e3i. Nh\u1eefng nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u l\u00e0 Ren\u00e9 Descartes v\u00e0 Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh Gilles Persone de Roberval (1602-1675), Girard Desargues (1591-1661) v\u00e0 Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p r\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e1ng k\u1ec3 v\u00e0o to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

VIII<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

TO\u00c1N H\u1eccC V\u00c0 TRI\u1ebeT H\u1eccC \u1ede DESCARTES<\/span><\/p>\n

Trong b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean n\u00e0o,\u00a0<\/em><\/span>khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong ch\u1eebng m\u1ef1c n\u00f3 ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc trong \u0111\u00f3.<\/em><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014 Immanuel Kant<\/strong>, N\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

L\u1ecbch s\u1eed to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc<\/strong> v\u00e0 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc<\/strong> c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u00ed nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng “m\u1eb7t ph\u1eb3ng giao nhau” trong cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Trong s\u1ed1 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1ec1 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, Ren\u00e9 Descartes c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc nh\u1ea5t. S\u1ed1ng v\u00e0o n\u1eeda \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII, \u00f4ng l\u00e0 cha \u0111\u1ebb c\u1ee7a h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3i t\u00edch v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ebfn tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. V\u00e0o th\u1eddi Descartes, thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef “tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc” c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a r\u1ed9ng h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi ng\u00e0y nay. N\u00f3 bao g\u1ed3m t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ch\u00fang ta g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 “khoa h\u1ecdc”, trong khi thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef “khoa h\u1ecdc” ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n bao h\u00e0m b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ng\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c n\u00e0o. Descartes kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. \u00d4ng tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1:<\/p>\n

T\u1eeb “tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc” c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 (wisdom), v\u00e0 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4n ngoan (prudence) trong vi\u1ec7c qu\u1ea3n l\u00fd c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o v\u1ec1 m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 m\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft, c\u1ea3 v\u1ec1 c\u00e1ch s\u1ed1ng, c\u00e1ch gi\u1eef g\u00ecn s\u1ee9c kh\u1ecfe l\u1eabn vi\u1ec7c ph\u00e1t minh ra m\u1ecdi lo\u1ea1i h\u00ecnh ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt.<\/p>\n

Theo ngh\u0129a r\u1ed9ng nh\u1ea5t, “tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc” bao g\u1ed3m si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc<\/em> v\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd<\/em>. V\u00ec v\u1eady, \u00f4ng tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i c\u00e2y:<\/p>\n

to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i c\u00e2y, trong \u0111\u00f3 r\u1ec5 l\u00e0 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, th\u00e2n c\u00e2y l\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u00e0nh m\u1ecdc ra t\u1eeb th\u00e2n c\u00e2y n\u00e0y l\u00e0 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u00e1c, quy v\u1ec1 ba nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0: y h\u1ecdc, c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c…. (Nguy\u00ean l\u00fd tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc<\/em>)<\/p>\n

Theo ngh\u0129a h\u1eb9p h\u01a1n, “tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc” \u0111\u1ed3ng ngh\u0129a v\u1edbi tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean (natural philosophy). Do \u0111\u00f3, Descartes cho r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng coi c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1ec1 quang h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 kh\u00ed t\u01b0\u1ee3ng h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft v\u1eadt l\u00fd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Le<\/em> Monde<\/em>. Nhi\u1ec1u nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u cho th\u1ea5y to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc th\u1eadt v\u1eady c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00ean tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Descartes, trong m\u1ed9t tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u. Nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc Anh Herbert W. Turnbull (1885 \u2013 1961) trong quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i<\/em> \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh chung nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>\n

T\u1eeb \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII, s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng [c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc] \u0111\u00e3 t\u0103ng l\u00ean… r\u1ea5t nhanh… \u1ede Ph\u00e1p, s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc thi\u00ean t\u00e0i nhi\u1ec1u b\u1eb1ng c\u1ea3 ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 s\u1ea3n sinh ra trong thi\u00ean ni\u00ean k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3… Th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i \u1ea5y l\u00e0 th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc; l\u1ed1i t\u01b0 duy c\u0169ng mang t\u00ednh to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc; v\u00e0 c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft cho m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c, ho\u1eb7c b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec kh\u00e1c ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i m\u00e0 c\u00e1i g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u; v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u00ean phong trong s\u1ed1 c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0y, gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 \u00adnh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc. H\u1ecd l\u00e0 Descartes v\u00e0 Leibniz. (Turnbull, The Great Mathematicians, <\/em>70; trong Moorman, The Influence of Mathematics on the Philosophy of Descartes, <\/em>297).<\/p>\n

Burtt n\u00f3i, m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng l\u00fd do khi\u1ebfn \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes l\u1edbn kh\u1eafp ch\u00e2u \u00c2u trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII n\u1eb1m \u1edf ch\u1ed7 \u00f4ng bi\u1ebft xem x\u00e9t l\u1ea1i t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch li\u00ean k\u1ebft ch\u00fang theo c\u00e1ch n\u00e0y hay c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi c\u1ed7 xe c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc to\u00e1n th\u1eafng l\u1ee3i<\/strong>. (Burtt, 117)<\/p>\n

C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng, c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 s\u1ef1 tr\u1ed7i d\u1eady c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c khoa h\u1ecdc th\u1ef1c ch\u1ee9ng n\u00f3i chung, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc; ch\u00ednh y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 n\u00e0y l\u00e0m cho ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Descartes (Cartesianism) kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

IX<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

DESCARTES V\u00c0 KHOA H\u1eccC C\u1ee6A \u00d4NG<\/span><\/p>\n

Trong ph\u1ea7n m\u1edf \u0111\u1ea7u c\u00e1c b\u00e0i gi\u1ea3ng v\u1ec1 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, Hegel c\u1ea3nh b\u00e1o ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed1n l\u1ecbch s\u1eed kh\u00f4 khan, trong \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ef1 k\u1ebf th\u1eeba c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1t c\u00e1c \u00fd ki\u1ebfn, sai l\u1ea7m v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng suy ngh\u0129 k\u1ef3 qu\u1eb7c. Trong nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, \u00f4ng n\u00f3i, \u2018to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t chi\u1ebfn tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ea7y x\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ed1t c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ebft; n\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebft v\u00e0 v\u00f4 h\u1ed3n, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng b\u1ecb b\u00e1c b\u1ecf v\u00e0 ch\u1ebft v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t tinh th\u1ea7n, b\u1edfi v\u00ec m\u1ed7i h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ebft ch\u1ebft v\u00e0 ch\u00f4n v\u00f9i h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng kia.<\/span> <\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014\u00a0A. Kenny, The Rise of Modern Philosophy<\/em>, tr. xiii<\/p>\n

Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng r\u1eb1ng sau Ockham (1287\u20131347), tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 ng\u1ee7 \u0111\u00f4ng trong su\u1ed1t th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XV v\u00e0 XVI, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng tr\u1ed7i d\u1eady cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1eddi Descartes khi n\u00f3 l\u1ea1i n\u1ed5i l\u00ean v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00e1c, n\u1ebfu n\u00f3i h\u01a1i qu\u00e1 m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc l\u1edbn th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n s\u1ea3n sinh ra nh\u1eefng tri\u1ebft gia t\u1ea7m c\u1ee1 nh\u01b0 Paris v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XIII v\u00e0 Oxford v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XIV n\u1eefa. Nh\u1eefng nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt quan tr\u1ecdng trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XV v\u00e0 XVI s\u1ed1ng r\u1ea3i r\u00e1c kh\u1eafp ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng kh\u00e1c nhau, ho\u1eb7c l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u01a1n \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o tr\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t l\u00e3nh ch\u00faa \u0111\u1ecba ph\u01b0\u01a1ng. Kh\u00f4ng ai trong s\u1ed1 h\u1ecd \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, ho\u1eb7c x\u1ee9ng \u0111\u00e1ng v\u1edbi, t\u1ea7m \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng qu\u1ed1c t\u1ebf l\u00e2u d\u00e0i c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng tri\u1ebft gia v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5. V\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII, khi nh\u1eefng tri\u1ebft gia h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u l\u1ea1i xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n, ch\u00fang ta th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng kh\u00f4ng ai trong s\u1ed1 h\u1ecd \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c danh ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc. (A. Kenny, An Illustrated brief history<\/em>) L\u00fd do: \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kinh vi\u1ec7n, d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o tr\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i, chi\u1ebfm gi\u1eef, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n l\u00e0 n\u01a1i nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed5i m\u1edbi s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o.<\/p>\n

\u1ea2nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng s\u00e2u r\u1ed9ng, quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 b\u1edfi c\u00e1ch \u00f4ng (m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 tin v\u00e0o Ch\u00faa v\u00e0 linh h\u1ed3n) \u0111\u00e3 lo\u1ea1i b\u1ecf kh\u1ecfi t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 d\u1ea5u v\u1ebft n\u00e0o c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c huy\u1ec1n b\u00ed v\u00e0 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng c\u1ea3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ch\u00fang ta \u0111ang s\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 c\u00e1c sinh v\u1eadt sinh s\u1ed1ng tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi (bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 ch\u00ednh ch\u00fang ta) \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u theo c\u00e1c th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 v\u1eadt l\u00fd c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n tu\u00e2n theo c\u00e1c quy lu\u1eadt m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh b\u1eb1ng th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 quan s\u00e1t. \u0110\u00e2y c\u0169ng ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n khai s\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a Melitus th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 VI tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng, nh\u01b0ng l\u1ea7n n\u00e0y c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u ch\u1ea5t khoa h\u1ecdc h\u01a1n. (Xem \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes t\u1ea1i ch\u00e2u \u00c2u trong Jonathan I. Israel, Radical Enlightenment<\/em>, Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 2, Government and Philosophy<\/em>)<\/p>\n

Trong khoa h\u1ecdc, nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a Descartes, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u1ea7m v\u00f3c v\u00e0 \u00fd ngh\u0129a r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn nh\u01b0 c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a Copernicus, Kepler hay Newton, nh\u01b0ng ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 xem nh\u1eb9. L\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c xo\u00e1y n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 h\u1ecdc th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc cho r\u1eb1ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, nh\u01b0ng ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb linh h\u1ed3n, \u0111\u1ec1u quy v\u1ec1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u1ea1t tu\u00e2n theo c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc. Trong c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc thu\u1ea7n t\u00fay, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt qu\u00e1n t\u00ednh, ng\u00e0y nay \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Newton: N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 l\u1ef1c t\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng l\u00ean m\u1ed9t v\u1eadt v\u00e0 v\u1eadt \u0111\u00f3 \u0111ang \u0111\u1ee9ng y\u00ean, n\u00f3 s\u1ebd v\u1eabn \u0111\u1ee9ng y\u00ean, v\u00e0 n\u1ebfu n\u00f3 \u0111ang chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng, n\u00f3 s\u1ebd ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng theo \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1eb3ng v\u1edbi t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed5i.<\/p>\n

LE MONDE<\/span><\/p>\n

T\u1eeb l\u00fac tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea5c m\u01a1 huy\u1ec1n b\u00ed b\u00ean b\u1edd s\u00f4ng Danube n\u0103m 1619, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 cho xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n Discourse on Method, Dioptrics, Geometry, Meteorology <\/em>(1637) nh\u01b0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ea7u tay. Nh\u01b0ng c\u00f4ng s\u1ee9c ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn v\u0103n \u0111\u1ed3 s\u1ed9, trong \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng d\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ecbnh tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt l\u00fd. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u00f3 t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 Le Monde, hay Trait\u00e9 de la Lumi\u00e8re<\/em> (Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, hay Lu\u1eadn v\u0103n v\u1ec1 \u00c1nh s\u00e1ng) d\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ecbnh xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1633. Nh\u01b0ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, tin t\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 phi\u00ean t\u00f2a x\u00e9t x\u1eed v\u00e0 k\u1ebft \u00e1n Galileo v\u00ec t\u1ed9i \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 thuy\u1ebft nh\u1eadt t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a Copernicus \u0111\u1ebfn tai \u00f4ng \u1edf H\u00e0 Lan. V\u00ec quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a Copernicus l\u00e0 tr\u1ecdng t\u00e2m trong v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 cho d\u1eebng vi\u1ec7c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n cu\u1ed1n Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi<\/em>, v\u1edbi hy v\u1ecdng r\u1eb1ng cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i s\u1ebd r\u00fat l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 l\u00ean \u00e1n. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 Descartes lo s\u1ee3 Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i, \u00f4ng c\u0169ng hy v\u1ecdng r\u1eb1ng v\u1eadt l\u00fd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng m\u1ed9t ng\u00e0y n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ebd thay th\u1ebf v\u1eadt l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Aristotle trong gi\u00e1o l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y trong c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o.<\/p>\n

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Minh h\u1ecda s\u1ef1 v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng m\u1eb7t tr\u1edfi, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c h\u1ec7 m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi kh\u00e1c, b\u1eb1ng thuy\u1ebft xo\u00e1y c\u1ee7a Descartes,.<\/p>\n

N\u0103m 1644, d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean n\u1ed9i dung \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1eadp nh\u1eadt c\u1ee7a Le Monde<\/em>, Descartes cho xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Principia philosophiae<\/em> (Nguy\u00ean l\u00fd tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc<\/em>), \u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn tri\u00eat h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean hay v\u1eadt l\u00fd, trong \u0111\u00f3 Descartes \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t m\u00f4 h\u00ecnh v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, v\u00e0 nh\u01b0 \u00f4ng n\u00f3i \u1edf cu\u1ed1i t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m, \u201ckh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0o c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean b\u1ecb b\u1ecf s\u00f3t trong lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y\u201d. \u00dd \u00f4ng mu\u1ed1n n\u00f3i l\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ec9 ra nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc m\u00e0 v\u1ec1 nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch. V\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u00e0o b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0o b\u1ea1n ch\u1ecdn, v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft s\u1ebd \u0111\u1ebfn. H\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean (“si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc”) c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafm \u0111\u1ebfn ho\u00e0n ch\u1ec9nh, bao qu\u00e1t to\u00e0n di\u1ec7n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 thay th\u1ebf h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a Aristotle v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Kinh vi\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u00e2u \u00c2u trong nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7.<\/p>\n

Trong Nguy\u00ean l\u00fd tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc<\/em>, \u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi n\u1eb1m \u1edf trung t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t v\u00f9ng xo\u00e1y (vortex) kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 g\u1ed3m v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t v\u00f4 h\u00ecnh \u0111ang quay, v\u00e0 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng xo\u00e1y n\u00e0y mang c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh tinh quay xung quanh theo, gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfc l\u00e1 trong m\u1ed9t v\u00f2ng xo\u00e1y n\u01b0\u1edbc. Descartes c\u00f2n \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t th\u00eam r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed7i ng\u00f4i sao l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi, v\u1edbi v\u00f9ng xo\u00e1y ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, v\u00ec v\u1eady v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t bi\u1ec3n xo\u00e1y. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y cung c\u1ea5p m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng y\u00eau c\u1ea7u t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb xa, nh\u01b0ng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 thuy\u1ebft Copernicus. D\u1ec5 h\u00ecnh dung, l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft xo\u00e1y v\u1ec1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh tinh \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn v\u00e0 minh h\u1ecda nhi\u1ec1u l\u1ea7n trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 sau Descartes.<\/p>\n

Do \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i trong nh\u1eefng th\u1eadp k\u1ef7 sau khi \u00f4ng qua \u0111\u1eddi, vi\u1ec7c ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Newton v\u1ec1 l\u1ef1c h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn v\u00e0 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh tinh \u1edf Ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 n\u01a1i kh\u00e1c \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb tr\u00ec ho\u00e3n \u0111\u00e1ng k\u1ec3 v\u00ec nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi Descartes. C\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c c\u1ef1c \u0111oan trong chuy\u1ec7n n\u00e0y \u2013 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd v\u00e0 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh, trong khi Newton, t\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean, l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 ti\u00ean tri \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00f4n k\u00ednh \u1edf \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. (Gribbin)<\/p>\n

D<\/span>escartes kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n \u0111\u00fang m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf \u00f4ng c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u sai l\u1ea7m, c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng k\u1ec1m h\u00e3m s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 khoa h\u1ecdc \u1edf m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 v\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u \u00c2u (\u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 \u1edf Ph\u00e1p) trong nhi\u1ec1u th\u1eadp k\u1ef7, cho \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eadn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVIII. Sai l\u1ea7m l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Descartes l\u00e0 vi\u1ec7c b\u00e1c b\u1ecf \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 ch\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng hay “kho\u1ea3ng r\u1ed7ng” (vacuum, void). \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u0169ng d\u1eabn \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c b\u00e1c b\u1ecf \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 nguy\u00ean t\u1eed, m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111ang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Pierre Gassendi kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian n\u00e0y, b\u1edfi v\u00ec m\u00f4 h\u00ecnh nguy\u00ean t\u1eed c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi xem m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 nh\u1ecf (c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eed) chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng trong kho\u1ea3ng tr\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e1c v\u1edbi nhau. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 nguy\u00ean t\u1eed \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 t\u1eeb th\u1eddi Democritus v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 5 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Epicurus, ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng t\u1eeb kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 341 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean \u0111\u1ebfn kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 171 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c, nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd chi\u1ebfm \u01b0u th\u1ebf \u1edf Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i; v\u00e0 Aristotle, nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Hy L\u1ea1p c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u1ea5t v\u1ec1 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y tr\u01b0\u1edbc cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t b\u00e1c b\u1ecf thuy\u1ebft nguy\u00ean t\u1eed v\u00ec s\u1ef1 li\u00ean h\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 v\u1edbi \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u1ec1 kho\u1ea3ng tr\u1ed1ng.<\/p>\n

X<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

DESCARTES V\u00c0 N\u01af\u1edaC PH\u00c1P<\/span><\/p>\n

“La Libert\u00e9 Cart\u00e9sienne”<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014 Jean-Paul Sartre, di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m “T\u1ef1 do Cartesian” \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng cho tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n sinh c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng (1946)<\/em><\/p>\n

\u1ea2nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes l\u00ean t\u01b0 duy tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u01b0\u1edbc Ph\u00e1p l\u00e0 r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn. Trong cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch L\u1ecbch s\u1eed Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i \u1edf Ph\u00e1p<\/em>, h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 Lucien L\u00e9vy-Bruhl l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng Descartes \u0111\u00e3 thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp “b\u1ea3n s\u1eafc tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c Ph\u00e1p” (French intellectual character) \u1edf t\u1ea7m qu\u1ed1c gia. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng l\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Ph\u00e1p, t\u1eeb Descartes cho \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1890 t\u1ee9c cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XIX, th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1eb7c \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c Ph\u00e1p. Theo \u00f4ng, \u0111i\u1ec1u quan tr\u1ecdng l\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u tri\u1ebft gia Ph\u00e1p b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u s\u1ef1 nghi\u1ec7p h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh t\u1eeb to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc ho\u1eb7c khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Voltaire \u201ctr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u00ean phong c\u1ee7a Newton\u201d \u1edf Ph\u00e1p, trong khi Condillac vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef c\u1ee7a ph\u00e9p t\u00ednh vi ph\u00e2n v\u00e0 t\u00edch ph\u00e2n. L\u00e9vy-Bruhl k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn: \u201cC\u00f3 v\u1ebb nh\u01b0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 suy lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Ph\u00e1p d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 \u1edf Ph\u00e1p \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 m\u1eadt thi\u1ebft gi\u1eefa tinh th\u1ea7n to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc\u201d (L\u00e9vy-Bruhl, History of modern philosophy in France<\/em>, 470).<\/p>\n

Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Ph\u00e1p trong th\u1eddi gian n\u00f3i tr\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u00ecnh b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a tinh th\u1ea7n Cartesian. Tinh th\u1ea7n Cartesian l\u00e0 \u201cs\u1ef1 ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n b\u1eaft bu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i khi \u0111\u00e3 tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi th\u1eddi Trung C\u1ed5 v\u00e0 v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c H\u01b0ng v\u00e0 C\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch\u201d, m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 t\u00e1ch bi\u1ec7t \u201cs\u1ef1 suy \u0111o\u00e1n khoa h\u1ecdc ho\u1eb7c tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc kh\u1ecfi th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc\u201d, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u201cl\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed5 to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ebf d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u01b0\u1eddng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 bi\u1ec7n minh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c\u2026\u201d Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Ph\u00e1p \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t th\u00edch h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y nh\u1edd t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t duy l\u00fd, ph\u1ed5 qu\u00e1t v\u00e0 nh\u00e2n v\u0103n, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh v\u00e0o t\u00ednh logic r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng. L\u00e9vy-Bruhl vi\u1ebft ti\u1ebfp: \u201cTinh th\u1ea7n n\u00e0y, v\u1ed1n \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf n\u00ean chi\u1ebfm \u01b0u th\u1ebf v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVIII th\u00f4ng qua Fontenelle v\u00e0 Montesquieu, th\u1ecbnh h\u00e0nh trong s\u1ed1 \u2018c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc\u2019 (c\u1ee7a Th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 Khai s\u00e1ng), v\u00e0 th\u1eadm ch\u00ed c\u1ea3 \u1edf Condillac, v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 ti\u00eau tan trong C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng Ph\u00e1p\u201d, v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u201ch\u1ed3i sinh\u201d trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Auguste Comte. (L\u00e9vy-Bruhl, nt<\/em>, 477)<\/p>\n

N\u0103m 1637 c\u00f3 hai s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n quan tr\u1ecdng trong \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c \u1edf Ph\u00e1p. Th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t, Vi\u1ec7n h\u00e0n l\u00e2m Ph\u00e1p ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp (\u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e9p vua Louis XIII t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1635). Vi\u1ec7n ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh bi\u00ean so\u1ea1n m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb \u0111i\u1ec3n ti\u1ebfng Ph\u00e1p d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef giao ti\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e2n Paris, ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111a s\u1ed1 d\u00e2n ch\u00fang. Ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf, tr\u1edf n\u00ean \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1edbi ti\u1ebfng Latinh, v\u00e0 c\u00f3 ch\u1ea5t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng cao khi\u1ebfn n\u00f3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef qu\u1ed1c t\u1ebf trong t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai. Th\u1ee9 hai, Lu\u1eadn v\u0103n v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> c\u1ee7a Descartes c\u0169ng ra \u0111\u1eddi n\u0103m 1637, v\u00e0 c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 t\u00f4n vinh l\u00fd tr\u00ed v\u00e0 vi\u1ec7c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp l\u1ea1i tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1 v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t trong th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng. Ngo\u00e0i ra trong lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 \u0110am m\u00ea<\/em>, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n m\u01b0\u1eddi hai n\u0103m sau \u0111\u00f3, \u00f4ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng \u0111am m\u00ea c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t b\u1edfi \u00fd ch\u00ed v\u00e0 cho r\u1eb1ng \u00fd ch\u00ed c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn t\u1eeb l\u00fd t\u00ednh, m\u00e0 \u00f4ng tin r\u1eb1ng ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t thi\u1ec7n \u00e1c.<\/p>\n

Tuy nhi\u00ean, Vi\u1ec7n H\u00e0n l\u00e2m Ph\u00e1p l\u00fac b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd, d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o c\u1ee7a H\u1ed3ng y Richelieu (1635\u20131642), \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp, m\u1eddi hay t\u00f4n vinh Ren\u00e9 Descartes trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m \u0111\u1ea7u th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp. Descartes v\u00e0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ed9t ph\u00e1 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> b\u1ecb b\u1ecf qua \u2013 v\u00ec nh\u1eefng l\u00fd do ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o. Nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a H\u1ecdc vi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ee9ng ngo\u00e0i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o v\u0103n h\u1ecdc, ng\u1eef ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n \u2013 \u0111\u1ec3 trau chu\u1ed1t ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef Ph\u00e1p. B\u1ed1n m\u01b0\u01a1i th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c H\u1ed3ng y Richelieu l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn l\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u01a1, nh\u00e0 vi\u1ebft k\u1ecbch, ti\u1ec3u thuy\u1ebft gia v\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh. V\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 (1624 \u2013 1642) c\u1ee7a vua Louis XIII, Richelieu \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kinh vi\u1ec7n truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng gi\u00e1o C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o \u0111\u1ec3 duy tr\u00ec quy\u1ec1n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc.<\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng n\u01a1i n\u00e0o nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn Descartes? \u00d4ng v\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea3o lu\u1eadn s\u00f4i n\u1ed5i trong c\u00e1c salon t\u01b0 nh\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c \u1edf Paris. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, tu s\u0129 Marin Mersenne, \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t m\u1ea1ng l\u01b0\u1edbi th\u01b0 t\u1eeb tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 \u1edf Paris, ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t “h\u1ecdc vi\u1ec7n \u1ea3o”, n\u01a1i c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes li\u00ean t\u1ee5c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc ph\u00e2n t\u00edch \u2013 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1edbi Vi\u1ec7n H\u00e0n l\u00e2m Ph\u00e1p.<\/p>\n

H\u01a1n m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 sau (1751), trong l\u1eddi t\u1ef1a n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng cho b\u1ed9 B\u00e1ch khoa to\u00e0n th\u01b0<\/em>, Diderot v\u00e0 d’Alembert \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch ngu\u1ed3n c\u1ea3m h\u1ee9ng c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd cho b\u1ed9 s\u00e1ch khai s\u00e1ng v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0y, cho r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eeb Bacon, Descartes, Newton v\u00e0 Locke. “Ch\u00ednh t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0y (Bacon) l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta mang \u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u nh\u1ea5t v\u1ec1 k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch b\u00e1ch khoa to\u00e0n th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.” Trong khi \u0111\u00f3, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t minh ra h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ed1, \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kinh vi\u1ec7n ra tr\u01b0\u1edbc s\u1ef1 ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n ho\u00e0i nghi. Tuy nhi\u00ean, theo h\u1ecd, c\u0169ng “c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i c\u1ea3m \u01a1n c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc kinh vi\u1ec7n v\u00ec h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ea3o t\u1ed3n tri th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 quan ni\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p, r\u1eb1ng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 b\u1ea9m sinh m\u00e0 l\u00e0 s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 suy ng\u1eabm v\u1ec1 c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c (reflection on sensation).” (J.G. Crowther)<\/p>\n

Ng\u00e0y 31 th\u00e1ng 7 n\u0103m 1937 di\u1ec5n ra \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Qu\u1ed1c t\u1ebf l\u1ea7n th\u1ee9 IX (th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Congr\u00e8s Descartes nh\u1eb1m k\u1ef7 ni\u1ec7m 300 n\u0103m xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em>), nh\u00e0 th\u01a1 t\u00ean tu\u1ed5i Ph\u00e1p Paul Val\u00e9ry (1871\u20131945) \u0111\u1ecdc m\u1ed9t b\u00e0i tham lu\u1eadn t\u1ea1i gi\u1ea3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Sorbonne, trong \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ee9ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc nguy c\u01a1 n\u01b0\u1edbc Ph\u00e1p b\u1ecb ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a to\u00e0n tr\u1ecb \u0111e d\u1ecda, Val\u00e9ry kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh s\u00e2u s\u1eafc r\u1eb1ng tinh th\u1ea7n v\u00e0 t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch r\u00f5 n\u00e9t nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u00ecnh b\u1edfi t\u01b0 duy Cartesian<\/em>. \u00d4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra c\u1ee5m t\u1eeb “La France est le pays de Descartes<\/em>” \u2013 “N\u01b0\u1edbc Ph\u00e1p l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ee7a Descartes” \u2014 \u0111\u00fac k\u1ebft tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1ec1 m\u1ed1i li\u00ean h\u1ec7 m\u00e1u th\u1ecbt gi\u1eefa t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng Descartes v\u00e0 v\u0103n h\u00f3a Ph\u00e1p. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Val\u00e9ry, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Descartes gi\u00fap con ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ee9c t\u1ec9nh, \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ecb l\u1ea1i b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t ch\u1ee7 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp, t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7 trong h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c, m\u1ed9t tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 thu\u1ea7n t\u00fay t\u1ef1 quan s\u00e1t ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh, gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n kh\u1ecfi m\u1ecdi th\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn v\u00e0 c\u1ea3m x\u00fac h\u1ed7n \u0111\u1ed9n \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a t\u01b0 duy. (Xem th\u00eam Descartes<\/em>, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y b\u1edfi Paul Val\u00e9ry)<\/p>\n

Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVIII tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, Antoine-L\u00e9onard Thomas, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 th\u01a1 v\u00e0 nh\u00e0 ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh v\u0103n h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p, s\u1ed1ng t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1732 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1785, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c trao gi\u1ea3i th\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Vi\u1ec7n H\u00e0n l\u00e2m Ph\u00e1p n\u0103m 1765 nh\u1edd b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n v\u0103n n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng ca ng\u1ee3i tri\u1ebft gia Ren\u00e9 Descartes:<\/p>\n

T\u1eeb th\u1eddi Aristotle \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1eddi Descartes, t\u00f4i nh\u1eadn th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t kho\u1ea3ng tr\u1ed1ng k\u00e9o d\u00e0i hai ngh\u00ecn n\u0103m. \u1ede \u0111\u00f3, t\u01b0 duy \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e1o b\u1ecb m\u1ea5t \u0111i, gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng ch\u1ebft d\u1ea7n trong c\u00e1t b\u1ee5i, ho\u1eb7c b\u1ecb ch\u00f4n v\u00f9i d\u01b0\u1edbi l\u00f2ng \u0111\u1ea5t, v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00f3 h\u00e0ng ngh\u00ecn d\u1eb7m, d\u01b0\u1edbi b\u1ea7u tr\u1eddi m\u1edbi v\u00e0 tr\u00ean m\u1ed9t v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t m\u1edbi. [\u2026] Trong tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, trong s\u1ef1 t\u00ea li\u1ec7t chung n\u00e0y, c\u1ea7n m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 h\u1ed3i sinh nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd th\u00eam nh\u1eefng su\u1ed1i ngu\u1ed3n m\u1edbi cho s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft, ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c l\u1ea1i m\u00f3n qu\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy, ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng g\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n, nh\u1eefng g\u00ec c\u00f2n ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0m, v\u00e0 t\u1ea1i sao s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 l\u1ea1i b\u1ecb \u0111\u00ecnh tr\u1ec7 trong nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7; m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ee7 t\u00e1o b\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed5, \u0111\u1ee7 thi\u00ean t\u00e0i \u0111\u1ec3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng l\u1ea1i, \u0111\u1ee7 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1eb7t n\u1ec1n m\u00f3ng v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc, \u0111\u1ee7 r\u1ef1c r\u1ee1 \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m ch\u00f3i m\u1eaft th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 ph\u00e1 v\u1ee1 s\u1ef1 m\u00ea ho\u1eb7c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc; m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd l\u00e0m kinh ng\u1ea1c b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i trong t\u1ea7m nh\u00ecn c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. [\u2026] Ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng n\u00e0y h\u1eb3n ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 Descartes. (Xem Maritain, Three Reformers<\/em>, hay \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 h\u01a1n \u00c9loge de Descartes<\/em> trong Wikipedia)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

XI<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

ISAAC NEWTON<\/span><\/p>\n

Gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 qu\u00e1 kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0o ho\u1eb7c b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0o. T\u1ed1t h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u l\u00e0 l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u1ea7n c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ebfn sau b\u1ea1n.<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014 Isaac Newton<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727, 84t)<\/p>\n

Tr\u00ean \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng khi\u00eam t\u1ed1n c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t thi\u00ean t\u00e0i v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i. Newton lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n l\u00e0 nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf. \u00d4ng khi\u00eam t\u1ed1n cho r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh nh\u1eefng vi\u00ean s\u1ecfi nh\u1eb5n \u0111\u1eb9p nh\u1eb7c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u00ean b\u1edd \u0111\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd c\u00f2n ch\u01b0a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1. Nh\u01b0ng tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 tr\u00ean c\u0169ng cho th\u1ea5y c\u00e1ch \u00f4ng ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn khoa h\u1ecdc ch\u1ecdn m\u1ed9t g\u00f3c \u0111\u1ed9 nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u00e0 \u00f4ng cho l\u00e0 kh\u1ea3 thi. Tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 Galilei v\u00e0 Kepler l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi khai ph\u00e1 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng.<\/p>\n

S\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng th\u1eeba n\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta nh\u00ecn v\u00e0o Isaac Newton, ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u th\u00eam Descartes v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a L\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba. Trong khi Descartes s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng tr\u1ef1c quan (intuition) v\u00e0 di\u1ec5n d\u1ecbch (deduction) nh\u01b0 n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1, \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ti\u00ean \u0111\u1ec1, th\u00ec Newton l\u1ea1i d\u00f9ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p quy n\u1ea1p, xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng quan s\u00e1t th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m r\u1ed3i \u0111i l\u00ean. \u0110\u00e2y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 xem l\u00e0 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a Galilei \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1, nh\u01b0 trong th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m m\u1eb7t ph\u1eb3ng nghi\u00eang \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt r\u01a1i t\u1ef1 \u0111o. Tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Newton l\u00e0 xem c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh l\u00e2u d\u00e0i, c\u00f2n ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c x\u1ea3y ra, kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd h\u1ebft. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft c\u00e2u n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng r\u1eb1ng \u201cgi\u1ea3i th\u00edch to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 qu\u00e1 kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0o ho\u1eb7c b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0o. T\u1ed1t h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u l\u00e0 l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u1ea7n c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ebfn sau b\u1ea1n.\u201d (Mokyr, Culture of Growth<\/em>, 105)<\/p>\n

H\u01a1n n\u1eefa, d\u00f9 ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd r\u1eddi kh\u1ecfi n\u01b0\u1edbc Anh, Newton l\u1ea1i h\u00f2a nh\u1eadp s\u00e2u s\u1eafc v\u00e0o m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt ch\u00e2u \u00c2u ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ec9 ri\u00eang Anh. T\u1ef1 h\u1ecdc to\u00e1n, \u00f4ng d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p (Ren\u00e9 Descartes v\u00e0 Fran\u00e7ois Vi\u00e8te) v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi H\u00e0 Lan (Frans van Schooten). \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 trao \u0111\u1ed5i th\u01b0 t\u1eeb\u00a0 v\u1edbi Huygens, Leibniz v\u00e0 Johann Bernoulli, v\u00e0 ngay t\u1eeb r\u1ea5t s\u1edbm \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t si\u00eau sao khoa h\u1ecdc qu\u1ed1c t\u1ebf, c\u00f4ng d\u00e2n th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n C\u1ed9ng h\u00f2a h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt.<\/p>\n

Isaac Newton r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t, c\u1ea3 v\u1ec1 b\u1ec1 r\u1ed9ng nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 v\u1ec1 c\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng m\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1eb7t ra nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n m\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc n\u00ean v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh theo \u0111\u00f3. Tuy nhi\u00ean, ngay c\u1ea3 Newton c\u0169ng d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u1ec1n nhi\u1ec7m tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 Galileo Galilei v\u00e0 Ren\u00e9 Descartes, v\u00e0 theo ngh\u0129a \u0111\u00f3, nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng g\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3. N\u1ebfu Newton ch\u01b0a t\u1eebng t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 khoa h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb k\u00ecm h\u00e3m v\u00e0i th\u1eadp k\u1ef7. Nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ec9 v\u00e0i th\u1eadp k\u1ef7. Edmond Halley ho\u1eb7c Robert Hooke ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt ngh\u1ecbch \u0111\u1ea3o b\u00ecnh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1ec1 tr\u1ecdng l\u1ef1c; Gottfried Leibniz th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t minh ra ph\u00e9p t\u00ednh vi ph\u00e2n v\u00e0 t\u00edch ph\u00e2n m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1edbi Newton (v\u00e0 l\u00e0m t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n \u00f4ng \u1ea5y); v\u00e0 l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft s\u00f3ng \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng \u01b0u vi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a Christiaan Huygens \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb k\u00ecm h\u00e3m b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Newton \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft h\u1ea1t. (Gribbin, The Scientists<\/em>)<\/p>\n

Trong s\u1ed1 3.000 cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch x\u1ebfp tr\u00ean c\u00e1c k\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a th\u01b0 vi\u1ec7n Trinity c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy\u00ean t\u1eb7ng b\u1edfi c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 khai s\u00e1ng, t\u1ea1o \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ec3 Newton ti\u1ebfp thu c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Galileo v\u00e0 Descartes \u2013 c\u1ea3 hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 \u00f4ng ngay l\u1eadp t\u1ee9c nh\u1eadn ra l\u00e0 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t t\u1ea7m nh\u00ecn khoa h\u1ecdc ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi t\u1ea7m nh\u00ecn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn.<\/p>\n

Trong n\u0103m th\u1ee9 hai h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i Cambridge, Newton b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u ghi ch\u00e9p v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed1n s\u1ed5 tay d\u00e0y c\u1ed9p m\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u1eb7t t\u00ean l\u00e0 Quaestiones Quaedam Philosophicae<\/em> (M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc). \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y cho th\u1ea5y b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u00f4 \u0111\u1ed9c v\u00e0 k\u00edn \u0111\u00e1o c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, b\u1edfi v\u00ec nh\u1eefng trang \u0111\u1ea7u v\u00e0 trang cu\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed1n s\u1ed5 tay n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ea7y tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Aristoteles ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng (c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi ch\u00e9p trong c\u00e1c b\u00e0i gi\u1ea3ng). Ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ebfn gi\u1eefa cu\u1ed1n s\u1ed5, \u00f4ng m\u1edbi b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u ph\u00e1c th\u1ea3o nh\u1eefng suy ngh\u0129 ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng dung h\u00f2a ch\u00fang v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng g\u00ec \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eeb vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u Galileo, Descartes, Kepler v\u00e0 Huygens. (Strathern, Dark\u00a0Brilliance<\/em>, Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 18)<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u quang h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Descartes, Newton n\u00f3i:<\/p>\n

\u201cNh\u1eefng g\u00ec Descartes \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u01b0\u1edbc ti\u1ebfn t\u1ed1t. [\u2026] N\u1ebfu t\u00f4i nh\u00ecn xa h\u01a1n Descartes, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 nh\u1edd \u0111\u1ee9ng tr\u00ean vai (sic<\/em>) nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3.\u201d (Freely, Aladdin\u2019s lamp<\/em>, 281)<\/p>\n

D\u0129 nhi\u00ean nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 th\u1eddi \u00f4ng c\u00f2n c\u00f3 Galilei, Hooke, Kepler v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII l\u00e0 th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3, nh\u1eefng thi\u00ean t\u00e0i.<\/p>\n

M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u c\u1ee7a Newton tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c di\u1ec5n t\u1ea3 nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>\n

Nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean l\u00e0 l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft, v\u00e0 suy lu\u1eadn nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n t\u1eeb k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi ch\u00fang ta \u0111i \u0111\u1ebfn nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean h\u1ebft (very first cause), ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc; v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf c\u01a1 ch\u1ebf c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, m\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 kia t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1.<\/p>\n

\u2014 Opticks<\/em>, Book Three. Part I, Query 28<\/p>\n

Khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 thi\u00ean t\u00e0i c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed1i x\u1eed kh\u00e1c \u1edf Anh. Newton qua \u0111\u1eddi n\u0103m 1727 \u1edf tu\u1ed5i 84. Tang l\u1ec5 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c t\u1ea1i Tu vi\u1ec7n Westminster, m\u1ed9t vinh d\u1ef1 th\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u1ec9 d\u00e0nh cho ho\u00e0ng gia cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u00f3. V\u00e0o ng\u00e0y tang l\u1ec5, quan t\u00e0i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o gian gi\u1eefa b\u1ea3y th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tu\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a Tu vi\u1ec7n. \u0110\u00e2y t\u1eebng l\u00e0 n\u01a1i an ngh\u1ec9 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c v\u1ecb vua v\u00e0 ho\u00e0ng h\u1eadu n\u01b0\u1edbc Anh k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb th\u1eddi Edward the Confessor n\u0103m 1066. Quan t\u00e0i c\u1ee7a Newton \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c khi\u00eang b\u1edfi Lord Chancellor, hai c\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edbc, ba b\u00e1 t\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0 c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a H\u1ed9i Ho\u00e0ng gia. Voltaire c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ai kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec1u nh\u1eadn ra t\u1ea7m quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng g\u00ec \u00f4ng \u0111ang ch\u1ee9ng ki\u1ebfn: \u201c\u0110\u1ed3ng b\u00e0o \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u00f4n vinh \u00f4ng\u2026 v\u00e0 ch\u00f4n c\u1ea5t \u00f4ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ec3 \u00f4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb vua \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho d\u00e2n ch\u00fang h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac.\u201d Isaac Newton, m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi sinh ra trong t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp b\u00ecnh d\u00e2n, ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 v\u01b0\u1ee3t tr\u1ed9i h\u01a1n t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c c\u00f9ng th\u1eddi, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c to\u00e0n th\u1ec3 d\u00e2n ch\u00fang t\u00f4n vinh. M\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n nh\u01b0 v\u1eady l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1edf Ph\u00e1p v\u00e0o th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u00f3. \u0110\u1ec3 s\u00e1nh k\u1ecbp v\u00e0 c\u1ea1nh tranh v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, theo \u00f4ng, ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 chuy\u00ean ch\u1ebf \u0111ang suy t\u00e0n c\u1ee7a Ph\u00e1p s\u1ebd ph\u1ea3i thay \u0111\u1ed5i. Thay v\u00ec ch\u1ec9 ca ng\u1ee3i v\u1ebb vang c\u1ee7a ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1, t\u1eeb nay tr\u1edf \u0111i khoa h\u1ecdc, l\u00fd t\u00ednh, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi mang l\u1ea1i h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed3ng lo\u1ea1i s\u1ebd l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea9m ch\u1ea5t ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng d\u1eabn d\u1eaft th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u00e1ng k\u00ednh tr\u1ecdng v\u00e0 t\u00f4n vinh. Qua s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y di\u1ec5n ra \u1edf Anh qu\u1ed1c, Voltaire \u0111\u00e3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t k\u1ef7 nguy\u00ean m\u1edbi \u0111ang h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh, m\u1ed9t k\u1ef7 nguy\u00ean m\u00e0 ch\u00ednh \u00f4ng s\u1ebd \u0111\u00f3ng vai tr\u00f2 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o \u2013 K\u1ef7 nguy\u00ean Khai s\u00e1ng<\/em>. (P. Strathern, Dark Brilliance<\/em>, Epilogue<\/em>)<\/p>\n

Khoa h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t (c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t) c\u1ee7a tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u00f4ng minh<\/em>, t\u1eebng b\u01b0\u1edbc x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i tr\u01b0\u1edbc, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u00e0ng l\u00e0m cho c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n tr\u1edf n\u00ean \u0111\u00e1ng ch\u00fa \u00fd h\u01a1n. Nh\u00e0 s\u1eed h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft gia l\u1ecbch s\u1eed Herbert Butterfield (1900\u20131979) c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Cambridge \u0111\u00e3 x\u1ebfp h\u1ea1ng cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0o l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>\n

K\u1ec3 t\u1eeb cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng \u0111\u00f3 l\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed5 quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c trong khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5 m\u00e0 c\u00f2n c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u2013 k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb khi n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 k\u1ebft th\u00fac b\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 suy t\u00e0n c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc kinh vi\u1ec7n m\u00e0 c\u00f2n b\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 h\u1ee7y di\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt l\u00fd h\u1ecdc Aristoteles\u2014n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 v\u01b0\u1ee3t tr\u1ed9i h\u01a1n t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb khi Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o tr\u1ed7i d\u1eady v\u00e0 h\u1ea1 th\u1ea5p th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng v\u00e0 C\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch xu\u1ed1ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng giai \u0111o\u1ea1n, nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 d\u1ecbch chuy\u1ec3n n\u1ed9i b\u1ed9, trong h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5. V\u00ec n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng tinh th\u1ea7n th\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u1eadt c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ngay c\u1ea3 trong vi\u1ec7c ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh c\u00e1c khoa h\u1ecdc phi v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i to\u00e0n b\u1ed9\u00a0 s\u01a1 \u0111\u1ed3 c\u1ee7a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh k\u1ebft c\u1ea5u c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, n\u00f3 hi\u1ec7n l\u00ean nh\u01b0 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i v\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i c\u00e1ch ph\u00e2n k\u1ef3 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed ch\u00e2u \u00c2u th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf n\u00ean l\u1ed7i th\u1eddi v\u00e0 g\u00e1nh n\u1eb7ng. (Trong Butterfield, The origins of modern science,<\/em> Ph\u1ea7n Introduction<\/em>)<\/p>\n

C\u00e1c quy tr\u00ecnh, ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Newton \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>\n

Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t v\u00e0 an to\u00e0n nh\u1ea5t d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0, tr\u01b0\u1edbc ti\u00ean ph\u1ea3i nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u k\u1ef9 l\u01b0\u1ee1ng c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt, v\u00e0 x\u00e1c l\u1eadp c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c t\u00ednh n\u00e0y b\u1eb1ng th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m, r\u1ed3i sau \u0111\u00f3 m\u1edbi ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh ch\u1eadm r\u00e3i h\u01a1n vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u01b0a ra c\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch ch\u00fang. B\u1edfi v\u00ec c\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft ch\u1ec9 n\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u00fang nh\u1eb1m x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u00fang, tr\u1eeb khi ch\u00fang c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 cung c\u1ea5p b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m. (Freely, Aladdin\u2019s lamp<\/em>, Ch. 15)<\/p>\n

\u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 quy tr\u00ecnh \u0111i t\u1eeb quan s\u00e1t \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft m\u00e0 Einstein g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng freie Sch\u00f6pfung, tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c t\u1ef1 do, <\/em>b\u1eb1ng tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1 c\u1ee7a thi\u00ean t\u00e0i r\u1ed3i ki\u1ec3m ch\u1ee9ng.<\/p>\n

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KHOA H\u1eccC: M\u1ed8T CH\u1eb6NG \u0110\u01af\u1edcNG D\u00c0I KH\u00d3 KH\u0102N NH\u01af CON THUY\u1ec0N \u0110\u1ebeN B\u1ebeN<\/span><\/p>\n

Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII l\u00e0 giai \u0111o\u1ea1n kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n, s\u00f4i n\u1ed5i, bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i tr\u00ean con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u00ecm “b\u1ea3n s\u1eafc” c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.\u00a0 L\u00e0m sao khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e3 h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1edf ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y l\u00e0 c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi s\u00e2u s\u1eafc c\u1ee7a Albert Einstein. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh h\u00e0ng ngh\u00ecn n\u0103m, k\u00e9o d\u00e0i t\u1eeb Hy l\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, khai s\u00e1ng Miletus, qua Alexandria, v\u00e0o Trung c\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, qua giai \u0111o\u1ea1n Ph\u1ee5c H\u01b0ng, r\u1ed3i ti\u1ebfn v\u00e0o Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII v\u1edbi h\u00e0ng lo\u1ea1t thi\u00ean t\u00e0i, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00f3 khao kh\u00e1t ch\u00e1y b\u1ecfng hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi nh\u01b0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa. Tinh th\u1ea7n khoa h\u1ecdc, m\u1ed9t khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u01a1i d\u1eady \u1edf Hy L\u1ea1p, kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd t\u1eaft. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00e2u \u00c2u th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5 ban \u0111\u1ea7u n\u1eafm b\u1eaft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng m\u1ea3nh v\u1ee5n tri th\u1ee9c c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u00edt \u1ecfi m\u00e0 h\u1ecd t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y, v\u00e0 trong logic c\u1ee7a Aristotle, h\u1ecd kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 ra m\u1ed9t tri th\u1ee9c khai ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m cho \u0111\u1ee9c tin phong ph\u00fa v\u00e0 c\u00f3 t\u00ednh khoa h\u1ecdc b\u1ec1n v\u1eefng. Cu\u1ed9c ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd d\u1eebng, cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi gi\u1edbi tinh hoa t\u00ecm \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i \u0111\u00e1p.<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII l\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi mu\u1ed1n thay th\u1ebf hai y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 c\u1ed9t tr\u1ee5 ng\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb trong tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3: ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kinh vi\u1ec7n, ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Aristotle, v\u00e0 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m First Cause<\/em> (Prime Mover), Ch\u00faa l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o, b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy l\u00fd (rationalism), \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m, quan s\u00e1t, l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft h\u00f3a, ki\u1ec3m tra, t\u1ee9c quy n\u1ea1p. Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc m\u1edbi kh\u00f4ng tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi t\u1ea1i sao Ch\u00faa t\u1ea1o ra Tr\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea5t (why), m\u00e0 t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi Tr\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea5t v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh l\u00e0m sao (how). V\u1edbi t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i “C\u00e1c nguy\u00ean l\u00fd to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean<\/em>” n\u0103m 1687, g\u1ecdi t\u1eaft l\u00e0 Principia<\/em>, c\u1ee7a Newton, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi \u0111\u00edch v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec9nh cao. V\u1edbi Newton xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n, “m\u1ecdi s\u1ef1 b\u1eebng s\u00e1ng”. Nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ee9ng tr\u00ean vai c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xa.<\/p>\n

V\u1edbi Principia<\/em>, Newton \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ebb kh\u00f3a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eb1ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc nh\u1eefng g\u00ec Copernicus n\u00eau l\u00ean l\u00e0m ti\u00ean \u0111\u1ec1 trong thuy\u1ebft nh\u1eadt t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf nh\u1eefng g\u00ec Galilei \u0111\u00e3 quan s\u00e1t trong n\u0103m 1609 v\u1edbi vi\u1ec5n v\u1ecdng k\u00ednh t\u1ef1 t\u1ea1o, h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a Kepler v\u00e0o h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng, v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n “di ch\u00fac” to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc h\u00f3a v\u00e0 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 gi\u1edbi c\u1ee7a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh theo c\u01a1 ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u1ed3 c\u1ee7a Descartes. Principia<\/em> l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t kh\u00fac quanh l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, hay \u0111i\u1ec3m u\u1ed1n, \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u chuy\u1ec3n t\u1eeb th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n do \u0111\u1ee9c tin ng\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb, sang th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n do khoa h\u1ecdc ng\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb.<\/p>\n

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XII<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

DESCARTES V\u00c0<\/span> MALEBRANCHE<\/span><\/p>\n

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“T\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 ai<\/em>.” (Nicolas Malebranche)<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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Nicolas Malebranche (1836-1715), b\u1ea3n kh\u1eafc c\u1ee7a de Rochefort, 1707<\/p>\n

Descartes c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00ean s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc sau \u00f4ng. M\u00f4t trong nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 Nicolas Malebranche<\/strong>, m\u1ed9t linh m\u1ee5c C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o La M\u00e3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p D\u00f2ng Oratory, m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia duy l\u00fd theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Cartesian. Malebranche sinh ra v\u00e0 m\u1ea5t c\u00f9ng n\u0103m v\u1edbi Louis XIV (1638-1715), do \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 ho\u00e0ng kim <\/em>\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Voltaire ca ng\u1ee3i. B\u1ed1 \u00f4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u1ed1 v\u1ea5n c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 vua v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t quan ch\u1ee9c c\u1ea5p cao trong b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn thu\u1ebf. Malebranche v\u1ed1n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb y\u1ebfu \u1edbt v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ef3 v\u1ecdng s\u1ebd s\u1ed1ng l\u00e2u, t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 nh\u01b0 Descartes; khi tr\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00e0nh, \u00f4ng v\u1eabn y\u1ebfu \u1edbt v\u00e0 \u1ed1m y\u1ebfu, nh\u01b0 th\u1ec3 sinh ra \u0111\u1ec3 s\u1ed1ng “cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi \u1ea9n d\u1eadt c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 tu kh\u1ed5 h\u1ea1nh v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c”. T\u1eeb n\u0103m 1654 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1656, Malebranche h\u1ecdc tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1eddng Cao \u0111\u1eb3ng de la Marche \u1edf Paris, sau \u0111\u00f3 n\u0103m 1656, \u00f4ng b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u h\u1ecdc th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i Sorbonne. N\u0103m 1660, Malebranche \u0111\u00e3 r\u00fat lui v\u00e0o d\u00f2ng tu Oratory \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Pierre Berulle th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp n\u0103m 1611, v\u00e0 t\u1eeb b\u1ecf h\u1ebft ph\u1ea7n t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n gia \u0111\u00ecnh d\u00e0nh cho \u00f4ng. N\u0103m 1664 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ee5 phong linh m\u1ee5c, nh\u01b0ng l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 Malebranche kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 g\u00e2y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u k\u1ef3 v\u1ecdng \u1edf c\u00e1c th\u1ea7y gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Cha Andr\u00e9, ng\u01b0\u1eddi vi\u1ebft ti\u1ec3u s\u1eed \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, cho bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 nghi\u1ec7p ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a Malebranche l\u00e0 kh\u00e1 t\u1ea7m th\u01b0\u1eddng.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng may m\u1eafn l\u00e0m sao cho l\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc! Malebranche \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 th\u1ee9c t\u1ec9nh v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc th\u00f4ng qua m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c g\u1eb7p g\u1ee1 t\u00ecnh c\u1edd v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Ren\u00e9 Descartes! Khi \u0111ang xem c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7u s\u00e1ch tr\u00ean ph\u1ed1 Saint Jacques, Malebranche \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ecdn mua cu\u1ed1n Trait\u00e9 de l\u2019Homme <\/em>c\u1ee7a Descartes\u2014v\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb cu\u1ed1n h\u00fat b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng g\u00ec \u0111\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c ph\u1ea3i d\u1eebng l\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea5y h\u01a1i. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u01a1n g\u1ecdi c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. T\u1eeb th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y tr\u1edf \u0111i, Malebranche \u0111\u00e3 say m\u00ea nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Descartes v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc: Cu\u1ed9c t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd<\/em> (1674\u201375) l\u00e0 s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 nghi\u1ec7p tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc l\u00e2u d\u00e0i v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3 s\u1ed9. Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng t\u00ecm c\u00e1ch t\u1ed5ng h\u1ee3p ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Descartes v\u1edbi t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Th\u00e1nh Augustine.\u00a0Si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc duy v\u1eadt c\u1ee7a Malebranche, trong \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 Ch\u00faa m\u1edbi s\u1edf h\u1eefu quy\u1ec1n n\u0103ng nh\u00e2n qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1, m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft Descartes v\u1ec1 c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc, s\u1ef1 s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o li\u00ean t\u1ee5c v\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft nh\u1ecb nguy\u00ean v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh s\u1ef1 ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n c\u1ee7a to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 t\u1ea1o v\u1eadt v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb Ch\u00faa m\u00e0 trong Ng\u00e0i \u201cch\u00fang ta s\u1ed1ng, di chuy\u1ec3n v\u00e0 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i\u201d. H\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y s\u1ebd tr\u1edf n\u00ean r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u00e0 chi ti\u1ebft h\u01a1n khi c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n. (Susan Peppers-Bates, 1)<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u1ebb nh\u01b0 Malebranche, nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Descartes c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i (revelation). \u00d4ng c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y \u0111\u00e2y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc tr\u00ean nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u00e0 m\u1ea1ch l\u1ea1c, cung c\u1ea5p nh\u1eefng l\u1eadp lu\u1eadn ch\u1ee9ng minh v\u1edbi t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 s\u1ef1 ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c ch\u1ee9ng minh to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc. Trong v\u00e0i n\u0103m ti\u1ebfp theo, Malebranche \u0111\u00e3 nghi\u1ec1n ng\u1eabm c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u00e0 c\u00e1c m\u00f4n \u0111\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t l\u1eadp tr\u01b0\u1eddng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t, trong \u0111\u00f3 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Descartes, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p v\u00e0o si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc duy t\u00e2m ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb Augustine. (Pyle, Malebranche, <\/em>2)<\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh qu\u1ea3 t\u1eeb s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfp thu t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng Descartes c\u1ee7a Malebranche \u0111\u00e3 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Recherche de la V\u00e9rit\u00e9 (T\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm S\u1ef1 th\u1eadt),<\/em>\u00a0\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n \u1ea9n danh v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1674. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp chi ti\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c kh\u00e1c nhau c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta – gi\u00e1c quan, tr\u00ed t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, c\u1ea3m x\u00fac v\u00e0 l\u00fd tr\u00ed – v\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c nhau m\u00e0 ch\u00fang c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u1eabn ch\u00fang ta l\u1ea1c l\u1ed1i.\u00a0D\u1ef1a nhi\u1ec1u v\u00e0o Thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh th\u1ee9 t\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Descartes<\/em>, Malebranche \u0111\u01b0a ra hai quy t\u1eafc \u0111\u1ec3 h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn t\u00e2m tr\u00ed mu\u1ed1n tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng sai l\u1ea7m \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ebfn ch\u00e2n l\u00fd. Malebranche kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng, m\u1ed9t khi t\u00e2m tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thanh l\u1ecdc \u0111\u00fang c\u00e1ch kh\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng sai l\u1ea7m t\u1ea7m th\u01b0\u1eddng, hai ch\u00e2n l\u00fd v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3n l\u1ed9, m\u1edf ra nh\u1eefng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn. Trong si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd th\u1ea5y r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng r\u1eb1ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf m\u1edbi l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ch\u00fang ta th\u01b0\u1eddng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n ‘t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean’ hay ‘th\u1ee9 c\u1ea5p’ ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng d\u1ecbp (occasions) <\/em>\u0111\u1ec3 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng theo nh\u1eefng quy t\u1eafc do ch\u00ednh Ng\u00e0i \u0111\u1eb7t ra. Trong nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng tri th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00f4ng qua ‘S\u1ef1 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y trong Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf’ (Vision in God, Th\u1ecb ki\u1ebfn trong Ch\u00faa), t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 n\u1ebfu c\u00e1c \u00fd ni\u1ec7m l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean m\u1eabu trong t\u00e2m tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ea5ng T\u1ea1o H\u00f3a, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng bi\u1ebfn th\u1ec3 hay ‘h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c’ c\u1ee7a t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n ch\u00fang ta. Hai lu\u1eadn \u0111i\u1ec3m song sinh v\u1ec1 thuy\u1ebft duy\u00ean c\u1edb v\u00e0 S\u1ef1 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y trong Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf t\u1ea1o n\u00ean c\u1ed1t l\u00f5i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Malebranche. (Pyle, Malebranche<\/em>, 2)<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0 Etienne Gilson \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t:<\/p>\n

So v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ea7y c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, nh\u00e2n c\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Malebranche ch\u1ec9 \u1edf m\u1ee9c th\u1ee9 hai; tuy nhi\u00ean, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 b\u1ecf qua Malebranche n\u1ebfu mu\u1ed1n hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. H\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c (indemonstrability) s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i, k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp \u0111\u1ebfn ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a duy t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a Berkeley; thuy\u1ebft duy\u00ean c\u1edb (occasionalism, thuy\u1ebft “duy c\u01a1”) c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, v\u1ed1n gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh s\u1ef1 b\u1ea5t kh\u1ea3 thi trong vi\u1ec7c ch\u1ee9ng minh b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng chuy\u1ec3n ti\u1ebfp n\u00e0o c\u1ee7a ch\u1ea5t n\u00e0y l\u00ean ch\u1ea5t kh\u00e1c, \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n c\u1ee7a Hume \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi nguy\u00ean \u00adt\u1eafc nh\u00e2n qu\u1ea3; v\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta ch\u1ec9 c\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ecdc Hume \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y \u00f4ng \u1ea5y \u00fd th\u1ee9c r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c \u0111i theo Malebranche. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m quan tr\u1ecdng, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh, trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. (Gilson, The Spirit of Mediaeval Philosophy<\/em>, 15)<\/p>\n

\u1ea2nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Malebranche v\u01b0\u01a1n t\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u01b0 Berkeley, Hume, Locke v\u00e0 Leibniz. (Xem Susan Peppers-Bates, Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 1, Si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Malebranche v\u00e0 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi)<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Malebranche, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Augustine, m\u1ecdi tri th\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i<\/em>. Tuy nhi\u00ean, tri th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i c\u00f3 hai lo\u1ea1i kh\u00e1c nhau. Nh\u1eefng \u00fd ni\u1ec7m r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta l\u00e0 m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u00fd ni\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa, l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng m\u00f4 h\u00ecnh ho\u1eb7c nguy\u00ean m\u1eabu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trong c\u00f4ng cu\u1ed9c s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o. Tri th\u1ee9c l\u00fd t\u00ednh (trong to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c) do \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, d\u00e0nh cho t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1eb5n l\u00f2ng suy ng\u1eabm v\u00e0 thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh. Ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i, c\u00f3 m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i c\u1ee7a L\u1eddi Ch\u00faa<\/em> trong Kinh Th\u00e1nh, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch qua nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7. V\u00ec hai lo\u1ea1i tri th\u1ee9c n\u00e0y b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb c\u00f9ng m\u1ed9t ngu\u1ed3n, l\u00e0 Ng\u00f4i L\u1eddi thi\u00eang li\u00eang<\/em>, n\u00ean ch\u00fang kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn v\u1edbi nhau. B\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng n\u00e0o gi\u1eefa l\u00fd tr\u00ed con ng\u01b0\u1eddi (tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc) v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9c tin Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o (th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc t\u00edn \u0111i\u1ec1u) \u0111\u1ec1u ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 \u1ea3o t\u01b0\u1edfng, l\u00e0 s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec3u l\u1ea7m. V\u00ed d\u1ee5, trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Traite de la Nature et de la Grace <\/em>, Malebranche c\u1ea3nh b\u00e1o \u0111\u1ed9c gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean hi\u1ec3u Th\u00e1nh Phaol\u00f4 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Calvin (ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i v\u00e0 \u00e2n s\u1ee7ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 c\u01b0\u1ee1ng l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Tin L\u00e0nh. ND). Cho r\u1eb1ng Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf \u0111\u00e3 ti\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ecbu s\u1ef1 tr\u1eebng ph\u1ea1t v\u0129nh h\u1eb1ng s\u1ebd l\u00e0 l\u00e0m cho kinh th\u00e1nh m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn v\u1edbi l\u00fd tr\u00ed, v\u1ed1n cho ch\u00fang ta bi\u1ebft r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea5ng to\u00e0n tr\u00ed v\u00e0 nh\u00e2n t\u1eeb kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o c\u00f3 \u00fd \u0111\u1ed3 x\u1ea5u xa nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. (Pyle, 8)<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0 nh\u00e0 vi\u1ebft ti\u1ec3u s\u1eed \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a Descartes, Cha Yves Andr\u00e9, m\u1ed9t linh m\u1ee5c d\u00f2ng T\u00ean, nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi l\u00e0 b\u1ea1n th\u00e2n v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a Malebranche trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m cu\u1ed1i \u0111\u1eddi, \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft, ‘Si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc cao si\u00eau c\u1ee7a Th\u00e1nh Augustine d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi v\u1eadt l\u00fd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng Descartes, v\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng Descartes ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Th\u00e1nh Augustine’. Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Descartes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eeda \u0111\u1ed5i n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 cho th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o. Malebranche c\u1ed1 \u00fd \u0111\u1eb7t ra m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o. M\u1ee5c ti\u00eau \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f4ng n\u00eau r\u00f5 l\u00e0 l\u00e0m cho Descartes nh\u1eefng g\u00ec Augustine \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho Plato, ho\u1eb7c Aquinas \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho Aristotle, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch m\u1edbi cho nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1o \u0111i\u1ec1u b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9c tin. T\u1ea5t nhi\u00ean, \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 nh\u01b0\u1ee3ng b\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edbc nh\u1eefng tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i. Malebranche cho r\u1eb1ng, v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 s\u1eeda \u0111\u1ed5i m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd l\u01b0u \u00fd, ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Descartes l\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh, v\u00ec v\u1eady tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 – nh\u01b0 l\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng nhi\u00ean – t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh. (Pyle, Malebranche<\/em>, 2-3)<\/p>\n

Tr\u00e1i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1edbi quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a Descartes, r\u1eb1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n, Malebranche tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft m\u00ecnh t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 ai. \u00d4ng n\u00f3i:<\/p>\n

Khi h\u01b0\u1edbng v\u00e0o ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh, t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn ra b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c hay kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng n\u00e0o c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n. C\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c n\u1ed9i t\u1ea1i (sentiment int\u00e9rieur<\/em>) m\u00e0 t\u00f4i c\u00f3 v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n cho t\u00f4i bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, t\u00f4i suy ngh\u0129, t\u00f4i c\u00f3 \u00fd ch\u00ed, t\u00f4i c\u00f3 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c gi\u00e1c quan, r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i \u0111au kh\u1ed5, v\u00e2n v\u00e2n; nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng cung c\u1ea5p cho t\u00f4i b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c n\u00e0o t\u00f4i l\u00e0 ai – v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a suy ngh\u0129, c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c, \u0111am m\u00ea hay n\u1ed7i \u0111au c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i – ho\u1eb7c m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 t\u01b0\u01a1ng h\u1ed7 gi\u1eefa t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y… T\u00f4i ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m g\u00ec v\u1ec1 linh h\u1ed3n c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n

[Melabranche trong Cottingham, John (ed.) Dialogues on Metaphysics [Entretiens sur la m\u00e9taphysique, 1688]\u00a0<\/em> in Western Philosophy, An Anthology, vol. Dialogue III, Blackwell, pp. 155\u2013156].<\/p>\n

Malebranche cho r\u1eb1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft t\u00e2m tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh nh\u01b0 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u1ef1 m\u00ecnh nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd v\u0129nh h\u1eb1ng m\u00e0 c\u1ea7n \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00fang. Ch\u00fang ta ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o Ch\u00faa \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c. Do nguy\u00ean t\u1ed9i v\u00e0 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t h\u1eefu h\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta, nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta b\u1ecb gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n \u1edf nh\u1eefng c\u1ea3m x\u00fac b\u00ean trong, khi\u1ebfn ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1, s\u00e2u s\u1eafc c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n m\u00ecnh.Trong khi \u00f4ng s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Descartes, Malebranche \u0111\u00e3 tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ed1t l\u00f5i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1ec1 tri th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng tr\u00ean n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a Augustine, ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi lu\u1eadn \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 soi s\u00e1ng thi\u00eang li\u00eang, tin r\u1eb1ng tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u1ef1 m\u00ecnh nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng ch\u00e2n l\u00fd v\u0129nh h\u1eb1ng; n\u00f3 c\u1ea7n \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00fang. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, Malebranche n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 t\u1ed5ng h\u1ee3p gi\u1eefa hai nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn: Th\u00e1nh Augustine v\u00e0 Ren\u00e9 Descartes.<\/p>\n

S\u1ef1 tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i Augustine n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 ng\u1eabu nhi\u00ean. Malebranche l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t linh m\u1ee5c trong D\u00f2ng Oratory, m\u1ed9t d\u00f2ng tu C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m s\u00e2u s\u1eafc th\u00eam l\u00f2ng s\u00f9ng k\u00ednh \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i th\u00f4ng qua vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u Th\u00e1nh Augustine. Cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng h\u00e0ng ng\u00e0y, gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c v\u00e0 c\u00e1c b\u1ea1n tu h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec1u ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n th\u1ea5m nhu\u1ea7n th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc Augustine.<\/p>\n

Malebranche \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho \u00adh\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft duy l\u00fd c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi gi\u00e1o \u0111i\u1ec1u Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m thay \u0111\u1ed5i gi\u00e1o \u0111i\u1ec1u Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng bu\u1ed9c l\u00fd tr\u00ed ph\u1ea3i t\u1eeb b\u1ecf quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Vi\u1ec7c k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean t\u1eafc c\u1ee7a Descartes \u0111\u00e3 mang l\u1ea1i cho c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Malebranche m\u1ed9t h\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1ecb \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e1o. Ng\u00e0y nay, h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0o \u0111i v\u00e0o d\u0129 v\u00e3ng, gi\u1eefa Descartes, ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 \u00f4ng k\u1ebf th\u1eeba, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc duy t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn sau \u00f4ng.\u00a0Nh\u01b0ng trong khi nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u00e0y n\u1ee3 \u00f4ng nhi\u1ec1u \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ea1o, Malebranche \u00adv\u1eabn c\u00f3 c\u00f4ng lao, hi\u1ebfm c\u00f3 \u1edf t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9c nh\u1ea5t v\u00f4 nh\u1ecb \u1edf Ph\u00e1p, \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o (religious philosophy) kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01a1n thu\u1ea7n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c truy\u1ec1n c\u1ea3m h\u1ee9ng t\u1eeb t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o.\u00a0(Lucien L\u00e9vy-Bruhl)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

XIII<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

QUA \u0110\u1edcI \u0110\u1ed8T NG\u1ed8T T\u1ea0I TH\u1ee4Y \u0110I\u1ec2N<\/span><\/p>\n

Descartes s\u1ed1ng \u1edf H\u00e0 Lan 20 n\u0103m, mu\u1ed1n t\u1eadn h\u01b0\u1edfng s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 do l\u1edbn h\u01a1n b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 n\u01a1i n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u00e1nh nh\u1eefng phi\u1ec1n nhi\u1ec5u c\u1ee7a Paris v\u00e0 b\u1ea1n b\u00e8, nh\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1eddi gian r\u1ea3nh r\u1ed7i v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 c\u00f4 \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ec3 suy ngh\u0129. \u00d4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1eeba h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ee7 ti\u1ec1n b\u1ea1c v\u00e0 t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ec3 s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp. H\u00e0 Lan l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t thi\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 khoan dung, n\u01a1i Descartes c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp, s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng s\u1ee3 b\u1ecb nguy hi\u1ec3m. N\u0103m 1624, Ngh\u1ecb vi\u1ec7n Ph\u00e1p \u0111\u00e3 th\u00f4ng qua m\u1ed9t s\u1eafc l\u1ec7nh c\u1ea5m ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch Aristotle v\u1edbi h\u00ecnh ph\u1ea1t t\u1eed h\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n

N\u0103m 1635, con g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a Descartes, Francine, ch\u00e0o \u0111\u1eddi v\u1edbi Helena Jans v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c r\u1eeda t\u1ed9i t\u1ea1i Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i C\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch \u1edf Deventer. C\u00e1i ch\u1ebft s\u1edbm c\u1ee7a Francine v\u00ec b\u1ec7nh s\u1ed1t ban \u0111\u1ecf \u1edf tu\u1ed5i n\u0103m l\u00e0 n\u1ed7i \u0111au l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t trong cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi Descartes. Descartes n\u00f3i \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng tin r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ph\u1ea3i k\u00ecm n\u00e9n n\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eaft \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng.<\/p>\n

Khi Descartes sinh ra kh\u00f4ng ai k\u1ef3 v\u1ecdng \u00f4ng s\u1ebd s\u1ed1ng l\u00e2u, gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 Isaac Newton. V\u00ec v\u1eady, \u00f4ng r\u1ea5t ch\u00fa tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ee9c kh\u1ecfe c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0103n chay tr\u01b0\u1eddng<\/em>. N\u0103m 1639, \u00f4ng khoe khoang r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng \u1ed1m \u0111au trong 19 n\u0103m, v\u00e0 d\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ecbnh s\u1ebd s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ebfn 100 tu\u1ed5i, nh\u01b0ng sau \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng, \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau \u0111\u00f3, c\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00f4ng s\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3 nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf h\u1ec7; b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n \u00f4ng th\u1eadm ch\u00ed c\u00f2n ch\u01b0a h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1ch ng\u0103n ng\u1eeba s\u1ed1t. V\u00ec v\u1eady, \u00f4ng n\u00f3i, thay v\u00ec ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c hy v\u1ecdng s\u1ed1ng l\u00e2u, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm ra m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng h\u01a1n, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 y\u00eau cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng s\u1ee3 ch\u1ebft. \u00d4ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh, m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ebft m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch thanh th\u1ea3n.<\/p>\n

N\u0103m 1649, khi N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Christina c\u1ee7a Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n, ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i Chi\u1ebfn tranh Ba m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m (1618\u201348) \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb qu\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 quan tr\u1ecdng v\u00e0 quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c nh\u1ea5t \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ebfn Stockholm \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc cho ho\u00e0ng gia v\u00e0 l\u00e0m r\u1ea1ng danh tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a b\u00e0. Descartes mi\u1ec5n c\u01b0\u1ee1ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn. C\u00f3 l\u1ebd v\u00ec \u00f4ng c\u1ea7n s\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o tr\u1ee3 t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai; cu\u1ed9c n\u1ed5i d\u1eady Fronde \u1edf Ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u1edf Paris, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y kh\u00f4ng an t\u00e2m v\u1edbi c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc Calvinist \u1edf H\u00e0 Lan. Hai th\u00e1ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi “Nh\u1eefng \u0111am m\u00ea<\/em>” (Passions de l’\u00e2me<\/em>) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 l\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng trong chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh \u0111\u1ebfn Stockholm. \u00d4ng c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y c\u00f4 \u0111\u01a1n v\u00e0 l\u1ea1c l\u00f5ng; \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c giao nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 vi\u1ebft m\u1ed9t v\u1edf ba l\u00ea, v\u00e0 b\u1ecb bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i d\u1eady l\u00fac n\u0103m gi\u1edd s\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ec3 d\u1ea1y tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc cho n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng! Tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y, \u00f4ng t\u1eebng hy v\u1ecdng s\u1ebd t\u00ecm ra b\u00ed quy\u1ebft k\u00e9o d\u00e0i tu\u1ed5i th\u1ecd th\u00f4ng qua c\u00e1c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u y h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Gi\u1edd \u0111\u00e2y, \u00f4ng l\u1ea1i tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh n\u1ea1n nh\u00e2n c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 kh\u1eafc nghi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a m\u00f9a \u0111\u00f4ng Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n v\u00e0 \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi k\u1ef3 l\u1ea1 c\u1ee7a n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng. Trong khi ch\u0103m s\u00f3c m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n \u1ed1m, \u00f4ng b\u1ecb vi\u00eam ph\u1ed5i v\u00e0 nhanh ch\u00f3ng qua \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y 11 th\u00e1ng 2 n\u0103m 1650, ch\u1ec9 h\u01a1n m\u1ed9t th\u00e1ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc sinh nh\u1eadt l\u1ea7n th\u1ee9 54 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n

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Descartes tr\u00f2 chuy\u1ec7n v\u1edbi N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Christina t\u1ea1i Stockholm (b\u00e0n b\u00ean ph\u1ea3i)<\/p>\n

N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Christina mu\u1ed1n b\u00e0y t\u1ecf s\u1ef1 t\u00f4n vinh \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 tr\u00e1ng l\u1ec7 trong nh\u00e0 th\u1edd l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t Stockholm, n\u01a1i ch\u00f4n c\u1ea5t ho\u00e0ng gia Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n. Nh\u01b0ng Pierre Chanut, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a vua Ph\u00e1p t\u1ea1i tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n v\u00e0 b\u1ea1n th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a Descartes, khuy\u00ean kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean v\u00ec s\u1ef1 th\u00f9 \u0111\u1ecbch c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo Luther \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Descartes. Cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng l\u1ec5 tang di\u1ec5n ra v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y 13 th\u00e1ng 2 trong, g\u1ea7n nh\u01b0 b\u00ed m\u1eadt, v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o La M\u00e3 tham d\u1ef1. M\u1ed9t linh m\u1ee5c duy nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecdc nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng theo nghi th\u1ee9c C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o, v\u00e0 con trai c\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a Chanut, ng\u01b0\u1eddi r\u1ea5t th\u00edch th\u00fa v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c th\u1ea3o lu\u1eadn tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o v\u1edbi Descartes, l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi khi\u00eang quan t\u00e0i. Chi ph\u00ed \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u1ea3 t\u1eeb t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi qu\u00e1 c\u1ed1, v\u00e0 ng\u00f4i m\u1ed9, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 bu\u1ed5i l\u1ec5, v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n. \u1ede b\u1ed1n m\u1eb7t c\u1ee7a t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e1 ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u00e1 c\u1ea9m th\u1ea1ch nh\u01b0 Christina \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t, Chanut \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft nh\u1eefng d\u00f2ng ch\u1eef Latinh d\u00e0i \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00f3m t\u1eaft cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 nghi\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n m\u00ecnh. Nh\u1eefng b\u00e0i th\u01a1 ca ng\u1ee3i nhanh ch\u00f3ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9 kh\u00e1c s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c, v\u00e0 v\u00e0i th\u00e1ng sau, m\u1ed9t huy ch\u01b0\u01a1ng k\u1ef7 ni\u1ec7m, mang ch\u00e2n dung nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ca ng\u1ee3i hoa m\u1ef9, \u0111\u00e3 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n \u1edf H\u00e0 Lan. (Vrooman, A biography<\/em>)<\/p>\n

V\u1ec1 sau thi h\u00e0i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ebfn Ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n \u0111ang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c an t\u00e1ng t\u1ea1i nh\u00e0 th\u1edd Saint Germain des Pr\u00e8s. H\u1ed9p s\u1ecd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u01b0ng b\u00e0y t\u1ea1i B\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi (Mus\u00e9e de L’Homme) trong Cung \u0111i\u1ec7n Chaillot \u1edf Paris.<\/p>\n

\u00d4ng qua \u0111\u1eddi m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi tr\u1ed1i tr\u0103ng n\u00e0o. Nh\u01b0ng theo m\u1ed9t ngu\u1ed3n kh\u00e1c, nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0:<\/p>\n

Linh h\u1ed3n ta, d\u00f9 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb giam c\u1ea7m t\u1eeb l\u00e2u, gi\u1edd \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00fac ng\u01b0\u01a1i ph\u1ea3i r\u1eddi kh\u1ecfi ng\u1ee5c t\u00f9, tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi xi\u1ec1ng x\u00edch c\u1ee7a th\u00e2n x\u00e1c n\u00e0y. H\u00e3y \u0111\u00f3n nh\u1eadn s\u1ef1 chia ly n\u00e0y v\u1edbi ni\u1ec1m vui v\u00e0 l\u00f2ng can \u0111\u1ea3m!<\/p>\n

N\u0103m 1667, Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o La M\u00e3 \u0111\u00e3 ra quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch \u0111\u01b0a c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u00e0o Index Librorum Prohibitorum (\u201cDanh m\u1ee5c s\u00e1ch b\u1ecb c\u1ea5m\u201d) \u0111\u00fang v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y h\u00e0i c\u1ed1t c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t trang tr\u1ecdng t\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ed3i Sainte-Genevi\u00e8ve-du-Mont n\u1eb1m tr\u00ean b\u1edd tr\u00e1i s\u00f4ng Seine \u1edf Paris (thu\u1ed9c qu\u1eadn 5). H\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i n\u1eb1m trong \u0111\u1ee3t thanh tr\u1eebng chung \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Galilei c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi Ph\u1ea3n c\u00e1ch. Tuy nhi\u00ean, c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia theo Tin l\u00e0nh, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t H\u00e0 Lan, Amsterdam, <\/span>\u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh nh\u1eefng n\u01a1i tr\u00fa \u1ea9n an to\u00e0n quan tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u1ec3 xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n v\u00e0 truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. C\u00e1c s\u00e1ch c\u1ea5m c\u1ee7a Galilei c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n t\u1ea1i H\u00e0 Lan. Cho n\u00ean ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng l\u1ea1 g\u00ec khi th\u1ea5y s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u1eabn ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n sau khi \u00f4ng m\u1ea5t.<\/p>\n

Nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m ch\u01b0a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong s\u1ed1 c\u00e1c gi\u1ea5y t\u1edd c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng t\u1ea1i Stockholm. Quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 Quy t\u1eafc h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn t\u01b0 duy (Rules for the Direction of the Mind)<\/em>.\u00a0Ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, Le Monde<\/em> (Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi<\/em>), v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u00e0 v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 h\u1ecdc, c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1664, m\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ed1n n\u0103m sau khi Descartes qua \u0111\u1eddi. Ph\u1ea7n th\u1ee9 hai, Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi<\/em> (Trait\u00e9 de l’Homme) <\/em>c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1662 (b\u1ea3n ti\u1ebfng Latinh) v\u00e0 n\u0103m 1664 (b\u1ea3n ti\u1ebfng Ph\u00e1p). M\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i ti\u1ebfng Ph\u00e1p ch\u01b0a ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh c\u00f3 t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 Cu\u1ed9c t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd (The Search After Truth)<\/em>, l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n trong b\u1ea3n d\u1ecbch ti\u1ebfng Latinh n\u0103m 1701. Cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i n\u00e0y h\u1eefu \u00edch v\u00ec n\u00f3 l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p nghi ng\u1edd c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u00e0 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi “T\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o?” (cogito).<\/p>\n

Nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t ra, Descartes l\u00e0 ai? C\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u00fd ki\u1ebfn. Nh\u01b0ng c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u, Descartes c\u00f3 c\u1ea3m x\u00fac t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi Pascal. Trong khi Pascal run r\u1ea9y khi nh\u00ecn v\u00e0o v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 v\u00f4 t\u1eadn v\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ea5y s\u1ef1 nh\u1ecf b\u00e9 v\u00e0 kh\u1ed1n kh\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, Descartes l\u1ea1i h\u00e2n hoan tr\u01b0\u1edbc s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh con ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong vi\u1ec7c hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 v\u00e0 th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac, v\u00e0 \u00f4ng b\u00e1c b\u1ecf quan \u0111i\u1ec3m cho r\u1eb1ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t l\u00e0 kh\u1ed1n kh\u1ed5 v\u00e0 t\u1ed9i l\u1ed7i. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n v\u1edbi Ch\u00faa \u0111\u1ec3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u b\u1ea5t k\u00ednh. Thay v\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3, khi ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, ch\u00fang ta ph\u1ea3i thay \u0111\u1ed5i ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u00f3 l\u1ebd hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII \u0111ang thai ngh\u00e9n m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111ang c\u00f3 th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 l\u1ea1c quan, ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 Galilei. Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1edbi \u00f3c t\u00f2 m\u00f2 v\u00f4 h\u1ea1n lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n mu\u1ed1n kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 b\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed3 c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa, nh\u01b0 Einstein t\u1eebng di\u1ec5n t\u1ea3: “T\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n bi\u1ebft Ch\u00faa \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o. T\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y hay kia, ho\u1eb7c quang ph\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a ph\u00e2n t\u1eed n\u00e0y hay kia. T\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n bi\u1ebft nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa; t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 chi ti\u1ebft.” <\/strong><\/em>(S\u00e1ch EINSTEIN) \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 ham mu\u1ed1n t\u1ed9t c\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng sinh linh h\u1eefu h\u1ea1n, mu\u1ed1n hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1i v\u00f4 h\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa, m\u1eb7c cho kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n, hay \u00fd ki\u1ebfn tr\u00e1i chi\u1ec1u, r\u1eb1ng khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd k\u1ebft th\u00fac, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1eabn lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n c\u00f2n c\u00e1ch xa Ch\u00faa, gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 h\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh c\u1eadu b\u00e9 Einstein \u0111u\u1ed5i theo \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng, \u0111u\u1ed5i ho\u00e0i nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 v\u1eabn cao bay xa ch\u1ea1y, do b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u1eb7c th\u00f9 c\u1ee7a \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c di\u1ec5n t\u1ea3 trong c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh Maxwell.<\/p>\n

C\u1ea7n n\u00f3i th\u00eam \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y. N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Christina c\u00f3 t\u00ean \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 l\u00e0 Christina Vasa. Vasa l\u00e0 t\u00ean c\u1ee7a tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i do \u00f4ng n\u1ed9i b\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7t ra, King Gustav I. B\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a b\u00e0 l\u00e0 Vua Gustavus Adolphus. V\u1ecb vua n\u00e0y l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1eb7t \u0111\u00f3ng chi\u1ebfn h\u1ea1m Vasa c\u00f3 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed v\u00e0 \u1ea9n d\u1ee5 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng. N\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 bi\u1ec3u t\u01b0\u1ee3ng cho s\u1ef1 v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 vua v\u00e0 s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n. V\u00ec th\u1ebf \u00f4ng ra l\u1ec7nh k\u1ef9 s\u01b0 trang b\u1ecb th\u1eadt nhi\u1ec1u s\u00fang c\u00e0 n\u00f4ng cho t\u1ea7ng cao c\u1ee7a Vasa v\u00e0 v\u00ec th\u1ebf l\u00e0m cho t\u00e0u m\u1ea5t \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh khi g\u1eb7p gi\u00f3. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb l\u1eadt ch\u00ecm ngay trong c\u1ea3ng Stockholm ch\u1ec9 v\u00e0i ph\u00fat sau chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean v\u00e0o n\u0103m1628. \u00d4ng \u1ea5y \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ebft con t\u00e0u chi\u1ebfn Vasa v\u00ec ch\u1ea5t l\u00ean \u0111\u00f3 g\u00e1nh n\u1eb7ng qu\u00e1 s\u1ee9c m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch phi l\u00fd, th\u00ec c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 c\u00f4 ch\u00e1u Christina \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ebft ch\u1ebft Descartes, m\u1ed9t chi\u1ebfn binh t\u00e0i gi\u1ecfi tr\u00ean m\u1eb7t tr\u1eadn t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng, b\u1edfi ch\u1ea5t g\u00e1nh n\u1eb7ng phi l\u00fd ch\u1ea5t l\u00ean \u00f4ng b\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p s\u1ee9c kh\u1ecfe c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ng\u1ea1o ngh\u1ec5 c\u1ee7a quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c \u2013 The arrogance of Power.<\/p>\n

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DESCARTES V\u00c0 EINSTEIN<\/span><\/p>\n

Cartesian doubt<\/em>, g\u1ea7n 300 n\u0103m sau, tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh th\u00e0nh Einsteinian doubt<\/em>: “\u0110i\u1ec1u quan tr\u1ecdng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng h\u1ecfi” (“Wichtig ist, dass man nicht aufh\u00f5rt zu fragen”). Cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi Einstein c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i \u0111\u00e3 minh h\u1ecda th\u00eam t\u00ecnh th\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp t\u01b0 duy v\u00e0 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 c\u1ee7a Descartes. C\u00e1i n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt \u1edf Einstein l\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp, t\u1ef1 do tr\u00ean con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u00ecm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, chinh ph\u1ee5c v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 Descartes. Einstein \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng m\u00ecnh ra kh\u1ecfi nh\u1eefng \u0111inh ki\u1ebfn khoa h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Einstein kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec c\u1ea5m k\u1ef5. M\u1ed7i ch\u00e2n l\u00fd \u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i t\u1ef1 chi\u1ebfm l\u0129nh n\u00f3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch kh\u00f4ng th\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn v\u00e0 t\u1eeb chi\u1ec1u s\u00e2u c\u1ee7a t\u01b0 duy. \u201cS\u1ef1 s\u1ee3 h\u00e3i tr\u01b0\u1edbc quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c l\u00e0 k\u1ebd th\u00f9 l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2n l\u00fd\u201d. S\u1ef1 ng\u1ea1o m\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c c\u0169ng v\u1eady. \u0110\u1ec3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 l\u1edbn, c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp t\u01b0 duy, c\u00f3 c\u00e1 t\u00ednh, kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ea1y theo th\u1eddi trang tri th\u1ee9c. \u201cS\u1ef1 l\u1edbn lao trong khoa h\u1ecdc ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 c\u00e1 t\u00ednh\u201d nh\u01b0 Einstein n\u00f3i. \u00d4ng c\u00f3 \u00f3c t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 ki\u00ean nh\u1eabn phi th\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 theo \u0111u\u1ed5i c\u00e1c b\u00e0i to\u00e1n \u0111\u1eb7t ra. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ph\u1ea3n bi\u1ec7n h\u00f9ng h\u1ed3n nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a l\u1ed1i h\u1ecdc s\u00e1o m\u00f2n nh\u1ed3i nh\u00e9t, l\u00e0m m\u1ea5t s\u00e1ng ki\u1ebfn, \u00f3c t\u00f2 m\u00f2, tr\u00ed t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9 th\u00e1nh thi\u1ec7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc thi\u00ean nhi\u00ean, nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 v\u1ed1n c\u00f3 t\u1eeb tu\u1ed5i th\u01a1 \u1edf m\u1ed7i \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb. C\u1ea3 Descartes l\u1eabn Einstein l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 gi\u1ea5c m\u01a1 l\u1edbn gi\u1ea3i m\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u00ed m\u1eadt c\u1ee7a v\u1ee5 tr\u1ee5.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

XIV<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

M\u1eaaU \u0110\u1ed0I THO\u1ea0I V\u1edaI C\u00d4NG CH\u00daA ELISABETH<\/span><\/p>\n

M\u1ed7i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i t\u1eeb tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u1ebfn nay \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 l\u1eddi b\u1ed9c b\u1ea1ch c\u1ee7a t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3,\u00a0 m\u1ed9t d\u1ea1ng t\u1ef1 truy\u1ec7n v\u00f4 th\u1ee9c, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u00edch.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

\u2014 <\/strong>Nietzsche, Jenseits von Gut und B\u00f6se<\/em><\/p>\n

C\u00f4ng ch\u00faa Elizabeth (1596 \u2013 1662) l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 “duy\u00ean n\u1ee3” tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u1edbi Descartes. B\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 \u00f4ng nhi\u1ec7t th\u00e0nh nh\u1ea5t. B\u00e0 l\u00e0 con g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a Tuy\u1ec3n h\u1ea7u t\u01b0\u1edbc Frederick, ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 \u00f4ng t\u1eebng chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i. \u00d4ng th\u01b0 t\u1eeb v\u1edbi b\u00e0 t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1643 cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi qua \u0111\u1eddi, tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi (v\u00e0 \u0111\u00f4i khi kh\u00f4ng tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi) nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch gay g\u1eaft c\u1ee7a b\u00e0 v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. B\u00e0 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e0nh t\u1eb7ng cu\u1ed1n “Nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean l\u00fd tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc”:\u00a0\u201cT\u00f4i cho r\u1eb1ng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0y \u2026 x\u1ee9ng \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c trao cho C\u00f4ng ch\u00faa<\/em>\u201d.<\/p>\n

\u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 cho b\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u l\u1eddi khuy\u00ean v\u1ec1 y h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c, v\u00e0 an \u1ee7i b\u00e0 v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c ch\u00fa c\u1ee7a b\u00e0, Vua Charles I, b\u1ecb h\u00e0nh quy\u1ebft. Trong l\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1 t\u1eb7ng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m “Nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean l\u00fd tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc” cho Elisabeth, Descartes \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9 nhan s\u1eafc v\u00e0 ph\u1ea9m gi\u00e1 cao qu\u00fd c\u1ee7a b\u00e0 nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>\n

“Khi t\u00f4i nh\u1eadn th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bth\u1ee9c \u0111a d\u1ea1ng v\u00e0 to\u00e0n di\u1ec7n v\u1ec1 m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 nh\u01b0 v\u1eady kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u1edf m\u1ed9t h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 gi\u00e0 nua \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e0nh nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m chi\u00eam nghi\u1ec7m, m\u00e0 \u1edf m\u1ed9t n\u00e0ng c\u00f4ng ch\u00faa tr\u1ebb tu\u1ed5i, ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 v\u1ebb \u0111\u1eb9p v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 tr\u1ebb trung g\u1ee3i nh\u1edb \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng n\u1eef th\u1ea7n duy\u00ean d\u00e1ng h\u01a1n l\u00e0 n\u1eef th\u1ea7n Minerva m\u1eaft x\u00e1m hay m\u1ed9t n\u00e0ng th\u01a1 n\u00e0o, th\u00ec t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng s\u1ee5p xu\u1ed1ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc s\u1ef1 ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9… c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi ph\u1ea9m gi\u00e1 ho\u00e0ng gia c\u1ee7a n\u00e0ng, n\u00e0ng th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t l\u00f2ng t\u1ed1t v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 d\u1ecbu d\u00e0ng phi th\u01b0\u1eddng, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 li\u00ean t\u1ee5c b\u1ecb th\u1eed th\u00e1ch b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f2n gi\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn, nh\u01b0ng ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd tr\u1edf n\u00ean cay \u0111\u1eafng hay s\u1ee5p \u0111\u1ed7. T\u00f4i qu\u00e1 x\u00fac \u0111\u1ed9ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y, \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i t\u00f4i cho r\u1eb1ng tuy\u00ean ng\u00f4n tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i n\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00e2ng t\u1eb7ng cho n\u00e0ng…” (Grayling, The Age of Genius<\/em>, 137-138)<\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng \u0111am m\u00ea<\/em>\u00a0l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 sinh l\u00fd h\u1ecdc, t\u00e2m l\u00fd h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft theo s\u1ef1 th\u00fac gi\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a C\u00f4ng ch\u00faa Elisabeth, ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong m\u1ed9t b\u1ee9c th\u01b0 ng\u00e0y 6 th\u00e1ng 5 n\u0103m 1643, \u0111\u00e3 n\u00eau l\u00ean c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi quan tr\u1ecdng “l\u00e0m th\u1ebf n\u00e0o linh h\u1ed3n con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 bi\u1ebft suy ngh\u0129, l\u1ea1i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n tinh th\u1ea7n th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1ef1 nguy\u1ec7n?” T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Ph\u00e1p, in \u1edf H\u00e0 Lan v\u00e0 xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n t\u1ea1i Amsterdam v\u00e0 Paris n\u0103m 1649 v\u1edbi t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 Les Passions de I’\u00e2me<\/em>. Descartes \u0111\u1ec1 t\u1eb7ng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m cho Elisabeth, v\u00e0 t\u1eb7ng m\u1ed9t b\u1ea3n in cho n\u1eef h\u00f2ang Christina c\u1ee7a Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n. N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng r\u1ea5t \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i b\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 m\u1eddi Descartes l\u00e0m tri\u1ebft gia c\u1ee7a tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh, v\u00e0 c\u1eed m\u1ed9t \u0111\u00f4 \u0111\u1ed1c c\u00f9ng m\u1ed9t chi\u1ebfn h\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u00f3n \u00f4ng t\u1eeb H\u00e0 Lan.<\/p>\n

R\u1ea5t \u00edt ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u00e0i l\u00f2ng v\u1edbi l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e1c gi\u1eefa linh h\u1ed3n v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c th\u00f4ng qua tuy\u1ebfn t\u00f9ng trong n\u00e3o, nh\u01b0ng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Nh\u1eefng \u0111am m\u00ea<\/em> v\u1eabn cho ch\u00fang ta m\u1ed9t b\u1ee9c tranh s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1ec1 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u2014 m\u1ed9t h\u1ee3p ch\u1ea5t b\u00ed \u1ea9n c\u1ee7a hai th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00edch, t\u00e2m tr\u00ed v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac \u2014 \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 Descartes coi l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh qu\u1ea3 qu\u00fd gi\u00e1 nh\u1ea5t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 thu ho\u1ea1ch \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn. (Cottingham, Descartes. Selected Philosophical Writings<\/em>, x)<\/p>\n

M\u1eabu \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y gi\u1eefa Descartes v\u00e0 C\u00f4ng ch\u00faa Elizabeth cho th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t t\u00ednh c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd c\u1ee7a Descartes, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e2n sinh quan h\u01b0\u1edbng v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda tr\u01b0\u1edbc, m\u1eb7c cho nh\u1eefng kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n trong cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi, m\u00e0 b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n \u00f4ng c\u0169ng t\u1eebng n\u1ebfm tr\u1ea3i. Descartes l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 vai tr\u00f2 c\u1ed1 v\u1ea5n v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u00e2m s\u1ef1 ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a C\u00f4ng ch\u00faa Elizabeth. C\u00f4ng ch\u00faa l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng l\u01b0u vong kh\u1ecfi qu\u00ea h\u01b0\u01a1ng Bohemia sau m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn cu\u1ed9c Chi\u1ebfn tranh Ba m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m. B\u00e0 c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 “N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng m\u00f9a \u0111\u00f4ng” (ti\u1ebfng \u0110\u1ee9c: Die Winterk\u00f6nigin) v\u00ec tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a ch\u1ed3ng b\u00e0 \u1edf Bohemial ch\u1ec9 k\u00e9o d\u00e0i trong m\u1ed9t m\u00f9a \u0111\u00f4ng. B\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c t\u00e0i gi\u1ecfi. B\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e0nh hai m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m cu\u1ed1i \u0111\u1eddi l\u00e0m vi\u1ec7n tr\u01b0\u1edfng m\u1ed9t tu vi\u1ec7n Tin L\u00e0nh \u1edf \u0110\u1ee9c. B\u00e0 m\u1ea5t sau Descartes 12 n\u0103m. Descartes l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng n\u1ed7i bu\u1ed3n hay \u0111\u00e2u kh\u1ed5 c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o c\u1ea7m t\u00f9 \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ean con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1ea5n th\u00e2n t\u00ecm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t ki\u1ec3u tri\u1ebft l\u00fd s\u1ed1ng Kh\u1eafc k\u1ef7.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

C\u00f4ng ch\u00faa Elisabeth c\u1ee7a Bohemia (1618\u20131680), n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c th\u01b0 trao \u0111\u1ed5i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc v\u1edbi Ren\u00e9 Descartes. B\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u1eddi ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh s\u00e2u s\u1eafc \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi thuy\u1ebft nh\u1ecb nguy\u00ean t\u00e2m-th\u1ec3 (mind-body) c\u1ee7a Descartes, n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi l\u00e0m th\u1ebf n\u00e0o m\u1ed9t linh h\u1ed3n phi v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. Ngu\u1ed3n \u1ea3nh: Kenny, The Rise of Modern Philosophy<\/em>. T\u1ea5m \u1ea3nh n\u00e0y d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 “\u0111\u1eb7c quy\u1ec1n” d\u00e0nh cho quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch.<\/p>\n

V\u00e0o th\u00e1ng 5 n\u0103m 1645, Descartes vi\u1ebft th\u01b0 cho b\u00e0, \u0111\u1ec3 n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 nghe tin b\u00e0 \u0111ang b\u1ecb s\u1ed1t ch\u1eadm (slow fever) v\u00e0 ho khan. \u00d4ng b\u00e0y t\u1ecf l\u1eddi chia bu\u1ed3n v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u1eddi khuy\u00ean. “Nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee9ng s\u1ed1t ch\u1eadm,” \u00f4ng n\u00f3i v\u1edbi b\u00e0, “l\u00e0 n\u1ed7i bu\u1ed3n.” N\u1ebfu ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p \u0111i\u1ec1u tr\u1ecb m\u00e0 \u00f4ng s\u1eafp \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t c\u00f3 v\u1ebb qu\u00e1 kh\u1eafc khe, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i th\u00eam m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn:<\/p>\n

T\u00f4i bi\u1ebft r\u00f5 r\u1eb1ng s\u1ebd l\u00e0 thi\u1ebfu kh\u00f4n ngoan n\u1ebfu t\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c ai \u0111\u00f3 h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac khi m\u1ed7i ng\u00e0y s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn l\u1ea1i mang \u0111\u1ebfn cho h\u1ecd nh\u1eefng ngu\u1ed3n phi\u1ec1n to\u00e1i m\u1edbi; v\u00e0 t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u00e0n nh\u1eabn mu\u1ed1n c\u00e1c b\u1eadc hi\u1ec1n tri\u1ebft c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd v\u00f4 c\u1ea3m.<\/p>\n

Tuy nhi\u00ean, gi\u1ea3i ph\u00e1p cho v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1ee7a Elizabeth r\u1ea5t r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng:<\/p>\n

D\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n cao th\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n t\u1ea7m th\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu n\u1eb1m \u1edf ch\u1ed7 nh\u1eefng t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n t\u1ea7m th\u01b0\u1eddng bu\u00f4ng th\u1ea3 b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n theo d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac hay b\u1ea5t h\u1ea1nh t\u00f9y thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u x\u1ea3y ra v\u1edbi h\u1ecd l\u00e0 d\u1ec5 ch\u1ecbu hay kh\u00f3 ch\u1ecbu; ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i, nh\u1eefng t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n cao th\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u00fd tr\u00ed m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd v\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 h\u1ecd c\u0169ng c\u00f3 d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng, v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd th\u01b0\u1eddng m\u00e3nh li\u1ec7t h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng, nh\u01b0ng l\u00fd tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd v\u1eabn lu\u00f4n l\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 nh\u00e2n, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed c\u00f2n khi\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng \u0111au kh\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 v\u00e0 g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n v\u00e0o h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac tr\u1ecdn v\u1eb9n m\u00e0 h\u1ecd t\u1eadn h\u01b0\u1edfng trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng n\u00e0y.<\/p>\n

Elizabeth \u0111\u00e1p l\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u1ea5n an Descartes r\u1eb1ng kh\u00f4ng b\u00e1c s\u0129 n\u00e0o c\u1ee7a b\u00e0 k\u00ea \u0111\u01a1n m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng thu\u1ed1c c\u00f3 t\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng t\u1ed1t nh\u01b0 v\u1eady.2 R\u00f5 r\u00e0ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u00edch l\u1ec7, Descartes tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 chi ti\u1ebft h\u01a1n:<\/p>\n

H\u00e3y xem x\u00e9t m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 m\u1ecdi l\u00fd do \u0111\u1ec3 h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac nh\u01b0ng l\u1ea1i li\u00ean t\u1ee5c ch\u1ee9ng ki\u1ebfn \u200b\u200bnh\u1eefng bi k\u1ecbch \u0111\u1ea7y r\u1eaby nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n th\u1ea3m kh\u1ed1c di\u1ec5n ra tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eaft m\u00ecnh, v\u00e0 d\u00e0nh to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 th\u1eddi gian \u0111\u1ec3 suy ng\u1eabm v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u bu\u1ed3n th\u1ea3m v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e1ng th\u01b0\u01a1ng. Gi\u1ea3 s\u1eed r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n h\u01b0 c\u1ea5u, v\u00ec v\u1eady d\u00f9 ch\u00fang khi\u1ebfn ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 r\u01a1i n\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eaft v\u00e0 lay \u0111\u1ed9ng tr\u00ed t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng, nh\u01b0ng ch\u00fang ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3. T\u00f4i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng ch\u1ec9 ri\u00eang \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y th\u00f4i c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n kh\u00e9p ch\u1eb7t tr\u00e1i tim ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0 khi\u1ebfn ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 th\u1edf d\u00e0i \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c tu\u1ea7n ho\u00e0n m\u00e1u trong c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb ch\u1eadm l\u1ea1i… M\u1eb7t kh\u00e1c, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u l\u00fd do ch\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111au kh\u1ed5 nh\u01b0ng l\u1ea1i qu\u00e1 c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng h\u01b0\u1edbng tr\u00ed t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3, \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i anh ta kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd ngh\u0129 \u0111\u1ebfn ch\u00fang ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb khi b\u1ecb \u00e9p bu\u1ed9c b\u1edfi m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nhu c\u1ea7u th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, v\u00e0 d\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn th\u1eddi gian c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec3 suy ngh\u0129 v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 mang l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 m\u00e3n nguy\u1ec7n v\u00e0 ni\u1ec1m vui. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y s\u1ebd gi\u00fap anh ta \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ec9nh t\u00e1o h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u quan tr\u1ecdng v\u00ec anh ta s\u1ebd nh\u00ecn nh\u1eadn ch\u00fang m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb chi ph\u1ed1i b\u1edfi c\u1ea3m x\u00fac. H\u01a1n n\u1eefa, t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng nghi ng\u1edd g\u00ec r\u1eb1ng ch\u00ednh \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y s\u1ebd c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i s\u1ee9c kh\u1ecfe cho anh ta, ngay c\u1ea3 khi l\u00e1 l\u00e1ch v\u00e0 ph\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a anh ta \u0111\u00e3 \u1edf trong t\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng k\u00e9m do t\u00ednh kh\u00ed x\u1ea5u c\u1ee7a m\u00e1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra b\u1edfi n\u1ed7i bu\u1ed3n.<\/p>\n

Sau \u0111\u00f3, sau khi b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn th\u00eam v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u00e1n ch\u1eefa tr\u1ecb cho t\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a Elizabeth, \u00f4ng chuy\u1ec3n sang n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh m\u00ecnh, trong l\u1ea7n duy nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1eddi th\u01a1 \u1ea5u c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh m\u00e0 theo nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta bi\u1ebft, \u00f4ng t\u1eebng vi\u1ebft trong th\u01b0 t\u1eeb c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh:<\/p>\n

H\u01a1n n\u1eefa, t\u00f4i xin ph\u00e9p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i th\u00eam r\u1eb1ng, qua kinh nghi\u1ec7m c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n, t\u00f4i th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p \u0111i\u1ec1u tr\u1ecb m\u00e0 t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1eefa kh\u1ecfi m\u1ed9t c\u0103n b\u1ec7nh g\u1ea7n nh\u01b0 gi\u1ed1ng h\u1ec7t, v\u00e0 th\u1eadm ch\u00ed c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f2n nguy hi\u1ec3m h\u01a1n. M\u1eb9 t\u00f4i qua \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0i ng\u00e0y sau khi t\u00f4i ch\u00e0o \u0111\u1eddi v\u00ec m\u1ed9t c\u0103n b\u1ec7nh v\u1ec1 ph\u1ed5i do c\u0103ng th\u1eb3ng g\u00e2y ra. T\u1eeb b\u00e0, t\u00f4i th\u1eeba h\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ee9ng ho khan v\u00e0 da xanh xao, t\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng n\u00e0y k\u00e9o d\u00e0i cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi t\u00f4i h\u01a1n hai m\u01b0\u01a1i tu\u1ed5i, \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c b\u00e1c s\u0129 \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00e1m cho t\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec1u cho r\u1eb1ng t\u00f4i s\u1ebd ch\u1ebft tr\u1ebb. Nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i lu\u00f4n c\u00f3 khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng nh\u00ecn m\u1ecdi vi\u1ec7c t\u1eeb g\u00f3c \u0111\u1ed9 thu\u1eadn l\u1ee3i nh\u1ea5t v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n, v\u00e0 t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn ch\u1ee9ng kh\u00f3 ch\u1ecbu, v\u1ed1n g\u1ea7n nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i, d\u1ea7n d\u1ea7n bi\u1ebfn m\u1ea5t. (Gaukroger, An intellectual Biography<\/em>, 15-16)<\/p>\n

\u0110am m\u00ea c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n<\/em>, \u0111\u00f4i khi c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 D\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng<\/em>.\u00a0Lu\u1eadn v\u0103n n\u00e0y li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn thuy\u1ebft nh\u1ecb nguy\u00ean tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, s\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c v\u00e0 linh h\u1ed3n<\/em>: linh h\u1ed3n suy ngh\u0129 (res cogitans) nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 h\u00ecnh th\u1ec3, trong khi th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c c\u00f3 h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t (res extensa) nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng suy ngh\u0129 v\u00e0 ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a b\u1edfi h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3.<\/p>\n

Trong cu\u1ed1n \u0110am m\u00ea<\/em>, Descartes \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a \u0111am m\u00ea l\u00e0 “nh\u1eefng nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c, c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c ho\u1eb7c s\u1ef1 x\u00e1o tr\u1ed9n c\u1ee7a t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta li\u00ean h\u1ec7 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u00e2y ra, duy tr\u00ec v\u00e0 c\u1ee7ng c\u1ed1 b\u1edfi m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a tinh th\u1ea7n” (\u0110i\u1ec1u 27). “Tinh th\u1ea7n” \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp trong \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a n\u00e0y l\u00e0 “tinh th\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt” (animal spirits), m\u1ed9t kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m tr\u1ecdng t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u sinh l\u00fd h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Descartes. Nh\u1eefng tinh th\u1ea7n n\u00e0y ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1edbi kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 nh\u01b0 h\u1ec7 th\u1ea7n kinh c\u1ee7a y h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. Descartes gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng tinh th\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ea3n sinh trong m\u00e1u v\u00e0 ch\u1ecbu tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m cho s\u1ef1 k\u00edch th\u00edch v\u1eadt l\u00fd khi\u1ebfn c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng. V\u00ed d\u1ee5, khi t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ebfn c\u01a1 b\u1eafp, tinh th\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt “l\u00e0m cho c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng theo t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c nhau m\u00e0 n\u00f3 c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng” (Nh\u1eefng \u0110am m\u00ea c\u1ee7a t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n<\/em>, \u0110i\u1ec1u 10).<\/p>\n

Tr\u1ecdng t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng l\u00e0 b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ai c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n c\u00e1c \u0111am m\u00ea. \u0110am m\u00ea v\u00e0 l\u00fd t\u00ednh c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ed5 sung nhau, nh\u01b0ng c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed1i ngh\u1ecbch nhau. N\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta lu\u00f4n d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o c\u1ea3m x\u00fac (\u0111am m\u00ea), th\u00ec s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t n\u00e0y s\u1ebd c\u00f3 xu h\u01b0\u1edbng tr\u1edf n\u00ean th\u1ea5p k\u00e9m h\u01a1n con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 c\u1ea3m x\u00fac m\u1edbi cho ch\u00fang ta bi\u1ebft ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0m g\u00ec, d\u1eabn d\u1eaft ch\u00fang ta theo con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00e0y ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng kh\u00e1c. Nh\u01b0ng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1ecb chi ph\u1ed1i b\u1edfi c\u1ea3m x\u00fac kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u01b0\u1edbng m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00f3 ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u00edch. Do \u0111\u00f3, h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng nh\u01b0 v\u1eady kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7, ngay c\u1ea3 khi n\u00f3 h\u01b0\u1edbng t\u1edbi m\u1ed9t m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3. Ch\u1ec9 khi \u0111am m\u00ea \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n, ch\u00fang ta m\u1edbi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tin t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u00fang d\u1eabn d\u1eaft m\u00ecnh. M\u1ed9t khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00fd tr\u00ed d\u1eabn d\u1eaft, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tin t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111am m\u00ea d\u1eabn d\u1eaft m\u00ecnh m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng g\u00e2y nguy hi\u1ec3m cho s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7 hay h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta.<\/p>\n

Descartes tin t\u01b0\u1edfng, \u201ckh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 linh h\u1ed3n n\u00e0o y\u1ebfu \u0111u\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3, n\u1ebfu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n t\u1ed1t, c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c tuy\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u0111am m\u00ea c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh\u201d (\u0110i\u1ec1u 50). Descartes coi ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng (activity) \u0111\u1ed3ng ngh\u0129a v\u1edbi t\u1ef1 do, v\u00e0 th\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng ngh\u0129a v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 tr\u00f3i bu\u1ed9c. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u00f3i Descartes, \u201cm\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng khi h\u00e0nh vi c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n suy ngh\u0129 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3, v\u00e0 n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng th\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 th\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ed9ng.\u201d \u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 h\u00e0m \u00fd r\u1eb1ng \u201ch\u00e0nh vi c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 do tr\u1eeb khi n\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n suy ngh\u0129.\u201d T\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t h\u01a1n, \u201ckh\u00f4ng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e0o c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u1eeb khi ch\u00fang ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o l\u00fd t\u00ednh.\u201d Ch\u1ecbu \u0111\u1ef1ng c\u00e1c \u0111am m\u00ea l\u00e0 th\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ed9ng, l\u00e0 b\u1ecb r\u00e0ng bu\u1ed9c; \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n c\u00e1c \u0111am m\u00ea th\u00f4ng qua l\u00fd t\u00ednh l\u00e0 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng, l\u00e0 t\u1ef1 do. (Schouls, Descartes and the Enlightenment<\/em>)<\/p>\n

C\u00f3 nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c linh h\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt khi\u1ebfn ch\u00fang ta ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o \u0111am m\u00ea c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh; t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1, c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c linh h\u1ed3n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt cho ph\u00e9p ch\u00fang ta l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 \u0111am m\u00ea c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. Trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean, th\u00e2n th\u1ec3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n, trong khi \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p th\u1ee9 hai, t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn th\u00e2n th\u1ec3. Trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t, “h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng” c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 ph\u1ea3n x\u1ea1 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, v\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta b\u1ecb cu\u1ed1n v\u00e0o gu\u1ed3ng m\u00e1y c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p th\u1ee9 hai, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n

Descartes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0110am m\u00ea c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n<\/em> c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh k\u1ebft th\u00fac b\u1eb1ng \u0110i\u1ec1u 212 v\u1edbi n\u1ed9i dung nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>\n

M\u1ecdi \u0111i\u1ec1u t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n v\u00e0o d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng, v\u00e0 m\u1ecdi \u0111i\u1ec1u x\u1ea5u xa c\u0169ng v\u1eady.<\/strong><\/p>\n

Linh h\u1ed3n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m vui ri\u00eang. Nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m vui m\u00e0 n\u00f3 chia s\u1ebb v\u1edbi th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c l\u1ea1i ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng, v\u00ec v\u1eady nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng s\u00e2u s\u1eafc nh\u1ea5t m\u1edbi c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng t\u1eadn h\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u1eefng ni\u1ec1m vui ng\u1ecdt ng\u00e0o nh\u1ea5t trong cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng n\u00e0y. \u0110\u00fang l\u00e0 h\u1ecd c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m n\u1ed7i cay \u0111\u1eafng nh\u1ea5t khi kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft c\u00e1ch s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u1eefng d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng \u0111\u00f3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p v\u00e0 khi v\u1eadn m\u1ec7nh ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i h\u1ecd. Nh\u01b0ng c\u00f4ng d\u1ee5ng ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 (wisdom) n\u1eb1m \u1edf ch\u1ed7 n\u00f3 d\u1ea1y ch\u00fang ta c\u00e1ch l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 v\u00e0 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t ch\u00fang m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch kh\u00e9o l\u00e9o \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u x\u1ea5u xa m\u00e0 ch\u00fang g\u00e2y ra ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ecbu \u0111\u1ef1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, v\u00e0 th\u1eadm ch\u00ed tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ngu\u1ed3n vui.<\/p>\n

M\u1ed7i ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ecdc ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0o nh\u1eefng tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh trong \u0111\u00f3.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

XV<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

THAY L\u1edcI K\u1ebeT<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"\u201cT\u00f4i ch\u1ec9 mong mu\u1ed1n s\u1ef1 b\u00ecnh y\u00ean v\u00e0 th\u01b0 th\u00e1i.\u201d<\/span> (Ren\u00e9 Descartes)<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n

N<\/span>h\u01b0 John Cottingham, m\u1ed9t h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft gia h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ed3ng d\u1ecbch v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3ng bi\u00ean t\u1eadp b\u1ed9 s\u00e1ch ba t\u1eadp mang t\u00ednh kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n “C\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Descartes”, vi\u1ebft:<\/p>\n

C\u00f3 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u \u0111i\u1ec1u trong h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a Descartes m\u00e0 theo t\u00f4i l\u00e0 r\u1ea5t c\u00f3 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1. Nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng ngay c\u1ea3 khi sai l\u1ea7m, Descartes v\u1eabn l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0 t\u1ea7m \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng to l\u1edbn, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1eabn x\u1ee9ng \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u k\u1ef9 l\u01b0\u1ee1ng, kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 b\u1edfi c\u00e1c chuy\u00ean gia th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII m\u00e0 c\u00f2n b\u1edfi c\u00e1c sinh vi\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u ng\u00e0nh tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ch\u00ednh hi\u1ec7n nay, bao g\u1ed3m si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u00e2m tr\u00ed (philosophy of mind), nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc khoa h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc. C\u00f3 l\u1ebd quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t, h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng Cartesian cung c\u1ea5p m\u1ed9t v\u00ed d\u1ee5 v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd v\u1ec1 \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 t\u00f4i coi l\u00e0 nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c t\u00ecm ra m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 m\u00e0 c\u00e1c l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c kh\u00e1c nhau trong c\u1ea3nh quan kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00edch h\u1ee3p th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi quan m\u1ea1ch l\u1ea1c. N\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh nh\u1eefng sinh v\u1eadt chuy\u00ean bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f2n thu h\u00fat ch\u00fang ta n\u1eefa, th\u00ec tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc s\u1ebd t\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n chia d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 tuy\u1ec7t ch\u1ee7ng: d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng tri th\u1ee9c v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi s\u1ebd ph\u00e2n nh\u00e1nh th\u00e0nh r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u d\u00f2ng su\u1ed1i nh\u1ecf bi\u1ec7t l\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng s\u1ebd ch\u1eb3ng c\u00f2n g\u00ec ngo\u00e0i m\u1ed9t v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng b\u1eb1ng sa m\u1ea1c. (Cartesian Reflections<\/em>, Preface<\/em>)<\/p>\n

N<\/span>i\u1ec1m hy v\u1ecdng v\u00e0 c\u0169ng l\u00e0 tham v\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a Descartes \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh \u00f4ng l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau do ng\u01b0\u1eddi ti\u1ec1n nhi\u1ec7m theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i kinh vi\u1ec7n Eustachius \u0111\u1eb7t ra: \u201cm\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ho\u00e0n ch\u1ec9nh l\u00e0 h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi<\/em>\u201d. \u0110\u1ec3 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc h\u1eefu th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 ch\u00eca kh\u00f3a \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng \u0111i theo truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng Aquinas, ng\u01b0\u1eddi cho r\u1eb1ng sapientia<\/em>, \u0111\u1ee9c t\u00ednh tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 cao nh\u1ea5t (highest intellectual virtues), ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn khi n\u00f3 h\u01b0\u1edbng t\u1edbi tri th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n cao c\u1ea3 v\u00e0 thi\u00eang li\u00eang nh\u1ea5t, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. Descartes th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u00ecn qua l\u0103ng k\u00ednh scientia <\/em>(khoa h\u1ecdc, tri th\u1ee9c) c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n, trong khi to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n cho th\u1ea5y cam k\u1ebft c\u00f2n quan tr\u1ecdng h\u01a1n c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi sapientia<\/em>, \u01a1n kh\u00f4n ngoan, v\u1edbi h\u00e0m \u00fd t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o r\u1ed9ng h\u01a1n m\u00e0 kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m \u0111\u00f3 mang l\u1ea1i cho m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nu\u00f4i d\u1ea1y nh\u01b0 \u00f4ng.<\/p>\n

Trong c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed1n s\u1ed5 tay \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f4ng ghi ch\u00e9p tr\u00ean gi\u1ea5y da trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian 1619 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1622, ph\u1ea7n Praeambula<\/em> t\u1ee9c L\u1eddi m\u1edf \u0111\u1ea7u<\/em> \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u1eafc c\u00e2u Th\u00e1nh v\u1ecbnh nh\u01b0 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ch\u00e2m c\u1ee7a Descartes: “S\u1ef1 k\u00ednh s\u1ee3 Ch\u00faa l\u00e0 kh\u1edfi \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4n ngoan\u201d (\u2018Initium sapientiae timor Domini\u2019, Psalm 111:10) V\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 s\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf. (Cottingham, Cartesian reflections<\/em>, 291)<\/p>\n

H<\/span>\u01a1n n\u1eeda th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc, Alexandre Koyr\u00e9, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 s\u1eed h\u1ecdc khoa h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p (g\u1ed1c Nga) c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn, \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 nh\u01b0 sau v\u1ec1 t\u00ecnh h\u1ee3p th\u1eddi c\u1ee7a t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng Descartes:<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Ba th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 \u0111\u00e3 ng\u0103n c\u00e1ch ch\u00fang ta v\u1edbi Descartes: ba th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 kh\u00f4ng ng\u1eebng v\u00e0 ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng nhanh ch\u00f3ng, \u0111\u00e3 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i khu\u00f4n kh\u1ed5 v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi.<\/p>\n

Ba th\u1ebf k\u1ef7, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 ba th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9, l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian d\u00e0i \u2013 \u0111\u1ee7 d\u00e0i \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea9y l\u00f9i v\u00e0o qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9 h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u00e3 khu\u1ea5y \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u00e2m tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean ch\u00fang ta ba tr\u0103m n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc. Tuy nhi\u00ean, khi \u0111\u1ecdc Descartes, kh\u00f4ng ai c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00f3 \u0111ang \u0111\u1ecdc nh\u1eefng v\u0103n b\u1ea3n \u0111\u00e3 l\u1ed7i th\u1eddi.\u00a0Ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i: ch\u00fang v\u1eabn s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 l\u1ea5p l\u00e1nh; ch\u00fang ta v\u1eabn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u01b0\u1edfng th\u1ee9c s\u1ef1 \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n c\u00f3 v\u1ebb kh\u00f4ng tin \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 nh\u1eb9 nh\u00e0ng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p<\/em> v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o\u00ad; <\/em>ch\u00fang ta v\u1eabn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb t\u1eeb s\u1ef1 s\u00e2u s\u1eafc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1ea9n gi\u1ea5u c\u1ea9n th\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Suy ni\u1ec7m. <\/em>S\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m cho ch\u00fang tr\u1edf n\u00ean l\u1ed7i th\u1eddi, kh\u00f4ng nh\u01b0 s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Sao b\u0103ng <\/em>(Meteors) c\u1ee7a Descartes v\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Kh\u00fac x\u1ea1 <\/em>(Dioptrics) c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng tr\u1edf n\u00ean l\u1ed7i th\u1eddi.<\/em>(Koyr\u00e9, trong Introduction<\/em> c\u1ee7a s\u00e1ch Elizabeth Anscombe et el (ed), Descartes. Philosophical Writings<\/em>.)<\/p>\n

Descartes c\u00e0ng quan tr\u1ecdng h\u01a1n khi m\u00e0 th\u1eddi n\u00e0o v\u00e0 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2u l\u00fd t\u00ednh b\u1ecb b\u00f3p m\u00e9o hay ch\u1ed1i b\u1ecf. Cartesian doubt v\u00e0 t\u01b0 duy \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 li\u1ec1u thu\u1ed1c v\u1eafc-xin gi\u00fap t\u0103ng c\u01b0\u1eddng s\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ec1 kh\u00e1ng, hay s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e1nh th\u1ee9c con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec3 v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua nh\u1eefng ngh\u1ecbch c\u1ea3nh. \u0110i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n ti\u00ean quy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ed5i m\u1edbi s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o, gi\u00fap v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua nh\u1eefng ch\u01b0\u1edbng ng\u1ea1i v\u1eadt, d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 n\u1eb1m \u1edf s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 do t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ec3 s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o, th\u1eddi n\u00e0o, x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i n\u00e0o c\u0169ng th\u1ebf.<\/p>\n

Nguy\u00ean:<\/strong> \u00d4ng Descartes \u01a1i, t\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n ch\u00e0o \u00f4ng!<\/p>\n

Descartes:<\/strong> Ch\u00e0o \u00f4ng Nguy\u00ean. \u00d4ng kh\u1ecfe m\u1ea1nh ch\u1ee9?<\/p>\n

Nguy\u00ean:<\/strong> C\u1ea3m \u01a1n \u00f4ng. Vi\u1ebft xong b\u00e0i, nhi\u1ec1u c\u1ea3m x\u00fac v\u00e0 suy ngh\u0129 khi\u1ebfn t\u00f4i c\u00f3 nhu c\u1ea7u mu\u1ed1n tr\u00f2 chuy\u1ec7n v\u1edbi \u00f4ng. Nh\u01b0ng b\u00e2y gi\u1edd t\u00f4i ch\u01b0a th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i nhi\u1ec1u.<\/p>\n

Descartes:<\/strong> V\u00e2ng l\u00fac n\u00e0o c\u00f3 th\u1ec3, \u00f4ng Nguy\u00ean tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i nh\u00e9.<\/p>\n

Nguy\u00ean:<\/strong> T\u00f4i th\u1ea5y \u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t tu s\u0129 kho\u00e1t \u00e1o th\u1ebf t\u1ee5c, m\u1ed9t “nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc” nh\u01b0ng v\u1edbi tri\u1ebft l\u00fd hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, weltanschauung<\/em> duy l\u00fd. \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng m\u00e0ng danh v\u1ecdng, m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i m\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c khai s\u00e1ng. \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi m\u00e0 c\u1ea3 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. \u00d4ng tin t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0o n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, d\u00f9 \u201clinh h\u1ed3n c\u00f3 y\u1ebfu \u0111u\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c n\u00e0o”, c\u0169ng c\u00f3 c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i ch\u1ebf ng\u1ef1 nh\u1eefng c\u00e1m d\u1ed7, mi\u1ec5n l\u00e0 h\u1ecd bi\u1ebft s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u00fd ch\u00ed t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft.<\/p>\n

Descartes:<\/strong> V\u00e2ng, t\u00f4i c\u00f3 t\u00e2m s\u1ef1 ch\u00fat \u00edt v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 trong Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p <\/em>nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi t\u1ef1 b\u1ea1ch, v\u00e0 trong \u0110am m\u00ea c\u1ee7a linh h\u1ed3n, <\/em>t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft ra t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea3n bi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi t\u00f2 m\u00f2 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1eb9p Elisabeth.<\/p>\n

Nguy\u00ean:<\/strong> \u0110i\u1ec3m \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t, \u00f4ng xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n v\u00e0o l\u00fac th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111ang kh\u1ee7ng ho\u1ea3ng v\u1ec1 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0 c\u00f3 kho\u1ea3ng tr\u1ed1ng c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea5p. Ph\u1ea3i ch\u0103ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n khi h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng ni\u1ec1m tin b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u s\u1ee5p \u0111\u1ed5, ho\u1eb7c khi b\u1ea1n b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u lung lay n\u00f3 v\u00e0 nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 b\u1ea5t \u1ed5n h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi b\u1ea1n t\u01b0\u1edfng?<\/p>\n

Descartes:<\/strong> V\u00e2ng, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf. Ch\u00fang t\u00f4i s\u1ed1ng trong th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 kh\u1ee7ng ho\u1ea3ng. Kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 t\u00f4i, m\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u00e1c c\u0169ng c\u1ea3m nh\u1eadn nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf.<\/p>\n

Nguy\u00ean:<\/strong> C\u1ea3m \u01a1n \u00f4ng. T\u00f4i r\u1ea5t vui khi n\u00f3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00f4i l\u1eddi v\u1edbi \u00f4ng. T\u00f4i s\u1ebd tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i \u00f4ng khi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3. Xin ch\u00e0o \u00f4ng.<\/p>\n

Descartes:<\/strong> V\u00e2ng, h\u1eb9n g\u1eb7p l\u1ea1i \u00f4ng sau.<\/p>\n

Qu\u1ef9 th\u1eddi gian \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ea1n n\u00ean t\u00f4i ph\u1ea3i d\u1eebng l\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e2y. Xin c\u1ea3m \u01a1n b\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 theo d\u00f5i.<\/p>\n

Nguy\u1ec5n Xu\u00e2n Xanh<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

L\u1eddi c\u1ea3m \u01a1n<\/span>. <\/em><\/strong>T\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 tr\u00e2n tr\u1ecdng c\u1ea3m \u01a1n s\u1ef1 gi\u00fap \u0111\u1ee1 h\u1ec7t s\u1ee9c qu\u00fd b\u00e1u c\u1ee7a T.M.K. (Berlin)<\/strong> trong vi\u1ec7c cung c\u1ea5p t\u01b0 li\u1ec7u b\u1ed5 \u00edch v\u00e0 phong ph\u00fa r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec7t t\u00ecnh. Anh \u1ea5y nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t “ph\u00e1p s\u01b0” \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho \u0110i\u1ec1u 2 trong B\u1ed9 \u0110\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a gi\u1edbi Hacker \u2013 “T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 th\u00f4ng tin c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ef1 do”<\/strong> \u2013 c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u0103n h\u00f3a \u0111\u1ed1i l\u1eadp c\u1ee7a v\u00f9ng v\u1ecbnh San Francisco th\u1eddi 1980 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c.<\/p>\n

Tham kh\u1ea3o<\/em>:<\/strong><\/p>\n

[1] DESCARTES. Selected Philosophical Writings<\/em>. Translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dugald Murdoch. Cambridge University Press 1988.<\/p>\n

[2] The Philosophical Writings<\/em> of Descartes. Volume I. Translated by JOHN COTTINGHAM, ROBERT STOOTHOFF, D\u01afGALD MURDOCH. Cambridge University Press, 1985.<\/p>\n

[3] John Cottingham, Cartesian Re\ufb02ections<\/em>. Essays on Descartes\u2019s Philosophy<\/em>. Oxford University Press, 2008.<\/p>\n

[4] Wilson, Margaret Dauler, Descartes<\/em>. Ego Cogito, Ergo Sum<\/em>. Routledge, 1978.<\/p>\n

[5] Needham, Joseph (ed.),\u00a0Science, Religion and Reality<\/em>.\u00a0The Macmillan Company, 1928.<\/p>\n

[6] Gilson, Etienne, The Spirit of Mediaeval Philosophy<\/em>. The University of Notre Dame Press, reprint 2009.<\/p>\n

[7] Gregory, Richard (ed.). The Oxford companion to The Mind<\/em>. The Oxford University Press, 1987.<\/p>\n

[8] Pyle, Andrew, Malebranche<\/em>. Routledge, 2013.<\/p>\n

[9] Peppers-Bates, Susan, Nicolas Malebranche<\/em>. Freedom in an Occasionalist World<\/em>. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2009.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

[10] Michael Wheeler, God\u2019s Machines: Descartes on the Mechanization of Mind<\/em>. Trong Husbands, P., Holland, O. and Wheeler, M., eds., The Mechanical Mind in History.<\/em> MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.. 2008, pp.307-330. Hay https:\/\/dspace.stir.ac.uk\/bitstream\/1893\/657\/1\/wheeler_gods_machines_STORRE.pdf<\/p>\n

[11] Freeman, David, Deconstructing Descartes: An Analysis of the Mathematical<\/em>
\nInfluences on Descartes\u2019 Philosophy<\/em> (c\u1ee7a Hi\u1ec7p h\u1ed9i to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc M\u1ef9, MAA): https:\/\/old.maa.org\/sites\/default\/files\/images\/upload_library\/46\/HOMSIGMAA\/2024-David_Freeman.pdf<\/p>\n

[12] Burtt, Edwin Arthur, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science: A Historical and Critical Essay<\/em>. Dover Publications, 2003.<\/p>\n

[13] Moorman, R. H., The Influence of Mathematics on the Philosophy of Descartes<\/em>. National Mathematics Magazine (MAA),Vol. 17, No. 7 (Apr., 1943), pp. 296-307.<\/p>\n

[14] Koyr\u00e9, Alexandre,\u00a0Introduction<\/em> trong\u00a0Descartes. Philosophical Writings<\/em>. A selection translated and edited by Elizabeth Anscombe, Peter Thomas Geach. Nelson, 1964.<\/p>\n

[15] L\u00e9vy-Bruhl, Lucien, History of Modern Philosophy in France<\/em>. The Open Court Publishing Company. Chicago, 1899.<\/p>\n

[16] Donohue, Christopher R., Lucien L\u00e9vy-Bruhl: \u201cThe Course of French Philosophy and the Primitive Mind\u201d.<\/em> https:\/\/etherwave.wordpress.com\/2009\/11\/17\/lucien-levy-bruhl-the-course-of-french-philosophy-and-the-primitive-mind\/<\/p>\n

[17] (C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecf) L\u00e9vy-Bruhl, Lucien, Nicolas Malebranche<\/em>. A Sketch in the History of Philosophy. The Open Court<\/em>: Vol. 1898: Iss. 9, Article 2.
\nAvailable at: https:\/\/opensiuc.lib.siu.edu\/ocj\/vol1898\/iss9\/2<\/p>\n

[18] Vrooman, Jack Rockford, Rene Descartes. A Biography<\/em>. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1970.<\/p>\n

[19] Kearney, Hugh, Science and Change 1500-1700.\u00a0McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1981<\/p>\n

[20] Kearney, Hugh,\u00a0The Origins of the Scientific Revolution<\/em>.\u00a0Longmans, 1966.<\/p>\n

[21] Freely, John, Aladdin’s lamp<\/em>.\u00a0Vintage Books, 2009.<\/p>\n

[22] Kline, Morris,\u00a0Mathematics. The Loss of Certainty.<\/em>\u00a0Oxford University Press, 1980.<\/p>\n

[23] Gaukroger, Stephen, Descartes. An intellectual biography.<\/em> Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995.<\/p>\n

[24] Grayling, A. C., The Age of Genius. The Seventeenth Century & The Birth of the Modern Mind<\/em>. Bloomsbury, 2016.<\/p>\n

[25] Willey, Basil, The Seventeenth Century Background<\/em>. A Doubleday Anchor Books. 1953.<\/p>\n

[26] Gillispie, Charles C., The Edge of Objectivity. An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas<\/em>. Princeton University Press, 1960.<\/p>\n

[27] Gribbin, John,\u00a0The Scientists.\u00a0A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors<\/em>. Random House, 2004.<\/p>\n

[28] Randall, John H. Jr., The Making of The Modern Mind<\/em>. Columbia University Press, 1976.<\/p>\n

[29] Strathern, Paul, Dark Brilliance. The Age of Reason. From Descartes to Peter the Great<\/em>. Atlantic Books, 2024.<\/p>\n

[30] Crowther, James G. , The Social Relations of Science<\/em>. The Macmillan Company, 1941.<\/p>\n

[31] Israel, Jonathan I., Radical Enlightenment. Philosophy and the Making of Modernity<\/em> 1650-1750. Oxford University Press, 2001.<\/p>\n

[32] Descartes<\/em>, presented by Paul Val\u00e9ry trong Series The Living Thought<\/em>. Cassell and Company, 1948.<\/p>\n

[33] Kline, Morris (ng\u01b0\u1eddi gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u), Mathematics in the Modern World. Readings from Scientific American<\/em>. H. Freeman and Company, 1968.<\/p>\n

[34] Cottingham, John (ed.),\u00a0The Cambridge Companion to Descartes<\/em>.\u00a0Cambridge University Press, 1992<\/p>\n

[35] Clarke, Desmond M., DESCARTES. A Biography<\/em>.\u00a0Cambridge University Press, 2006<\/p>\n

[36] Henry, John, A Short History of Scientific Thought<\/em>. Palgrave MacMillan, 2012.<\/p>\n

[37] Grayling, A.C., The Age of Genius. The Seventeenth Century & The Birth of the Modern Mind<\/em>. Bloomsbury, 2016.<\/p>\n

[38] Kenny, Anthony, The Rise of Modern Philosophy<\/em>. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2006.<\/p>\n

[39] Cottingham, John (ed.), Descartes. Meditations on First Philosophy<\/em>. With an introductory essay by Bernard Williams and a new introduction for this edition by John Cottingham. Revised edition. Cambridge University Press, 1996.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

[40] Schouls, Peter A., Descartes and the Enlightenment<\/em>. Edinburgh University Press, 1989.<\/p>\n

[41] Carl B. Boyer revised by Uta C. Merzbach, History of Mathematics<\/em>.\u00a0John Wiley & Sons, 1991.<\/p>\n

[42] Bell, E. T., Men of Mathematics<\/em>.\u00a0A Touchstone Book\u00a0Published by SIMON & SCHUSTER, 1986.<\/p>\n

[43] Descartes, Ren\u00e9. Passions of the Soul<\/em>. Translated by Jonathan Bennett.<\/p>\n

[44] R\u00e9e, Jonathan. Descartes<\/em>. London, 1974.<\/p>\n

[45] Ren\u00e9 Descartes. T\u1ef1 \u0111i\u1ec3n b\u00e1ch khoa Britannica, Stanford, Wikipedia, MacTutor-St. Andrews<\/em><\/p>\n

 <\/p><\/blockquote>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

DESCARTES M\u1ed9t tho\u00e1ng T\u00f4i t\u01b0 duy, v\u1eady t\u00f4i t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i Cogito, ergo sum (Je pense, donc je suis) Ren\u00e9 Descartes (31. 3, 1596 \u1edf La Haye-en-Touraine, Ph\u00e1p \u2013 11. 2,1650 \u1edf Stockholm, Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n, \u223c 54t).\u00a0B\u1ee9c ch\u00e2n dung (s\u01a1n d\u1ea7u 78 x 69 cm) n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a Ren\u00e9 Descartes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u01b0ng b\u00e0y t\u1ea1i B\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_mi_skip_tracking":false,"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15912"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=15912"}],"version-history":[{"count":372,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15912\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":16560,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/15912\/revisions\/16560"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=15912"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=15912"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=15912"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}