{"id":833,"date":"2017-11-26T23:59:17","date_gmt":"2017-11-26T16:59:17","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/?p=833"},"modified":"2021-05-14T15:01:22","modified_gmt":"2021-05-14T08:01:22","slug":"nhung-quyen-sach-muon-gui-huong-cho-gio","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/nhung-quyen-sach-muon-gui-huong-cho-gio\/","title":{"rendered":"T\u00ecnh y\u00eau khoa h\u1ecdc hay L\u00fd t\u00ednh th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5<\/i>"},"content":{"rendered":"

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NH\u1eeeNG QUY\u1ec2N S\u00c1CH<\/span><\/h1>\n

MU\u1ed0N \u201cG\u1eecI H\u01af\u01a0NG CHO GI\u00d3\u201d<\/span><\/h1>\n

Nguy\u1ec5n Xu\u00e2n Xanh<\/span><\/h2>\n

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Ch\u00fang ta sinh ra l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng sinh v\u1eadt c\u00f3 l\u00fd t\u00ednh.<\/span><\/p>\n

John Locke<\/span><\/p>\n

L\u1eddi n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ea7u<\/i>. D\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch m\u00e0 t\u00f4i \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 can d\u1ef1 d\u01b0\u1edbi c\u00e1c h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9 kh\u00e1c nhau, nh\u01b0 bi\u00ean so\u1ea1n, d\u1ecbch, ch\u1ee7 tr\u00ec, \u0111\u1ed3ng ch\u1ee7 bi\u00ean, vi\u1ebft l\u1eddi t\u1ef1a, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n t\u1eeb n\u0103m 2004 \u0111\u1ebfn nay \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y g\u1ea7n nh\u01b0 theo th\u1ee9 t\u1ef1 th\u1eddi gian. T\u00f4i ghi l\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec3 chia s\u1ebb v\u1edbi b\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ecdc g\u1ea7n xa, nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 c\u00e1c b\u1ea1n tr\u1ebb, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 v\u1edbi th\u1eddi gian t\u00f4i kh\u1ecfi qu\u00ean m\u00ecnh \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m g\u00ec trong g\u1ea7n 15 n\u0103m qua. Chu\u1ed7i c\u00e1c s\u1ed1 K\u1ef7 y\u1ebfu<\/i> c\u00f3 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 7 s\u1ed1, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n t\u1eeb 2006 \u2013 2014, b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u v\u1edbi K\u1ef7 y\u1ebfu Gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 \u0110\u1eb7ng \u0110\u00ecnh \u00c1ng (2006), Gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 Ho\u00e0ng T\u1ee5y (2007), Max Planck (2008) ng\u01b0\u1eddi khai s\u00e1ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u1eed, \u0111\u1ebfn 400 N\u0103m Thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 Galilei (2009), 150 N\u0103m Thuy\u1ebft ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a v\u00e0 Darwin (2009), \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Humboldt 200 N\u0103m (2010), b\u00e0 m\u1eb9 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, v\u00e0 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng l\u00e0 H\u1ea1t Higgs v\u00e0 M\u00f4 h\u00ecnh chu\u1ea9n (2012), s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 tuy\u1ec7t v\u1eddi c\u1ee7a H\u1ea1t v\u00e0 C\u01a1 ch\u1ebf b\u00ed \u1ea9n \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 s\u1ef1 c\u1ea5u t\u1ea1o c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. K\u1ef7 y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh r\u1ea5t t\u1eadp th\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc, nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u Vi\u1ec7t Nam trong v\u00e0 ngo\u00e0i n\u01b0\u1edbc, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 c\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc n\u01b0\u1edbc ngo\u00e0i t\u1eeb \u0110\u1ee9c, M\u1ef9. Ch\u00fang \u0111\u00e1nh d\u1ea5u m\u1ed9t n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u c\u00f4ng s\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ec3 truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 khoa h\u1ecdc, gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c v\u00e0 g\u00e2y c\u1ea3m h\u1ee9ng cho \u0111\u1ea1i ch\u00fang. Khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 Gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 hai ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec1 quan tr\u1ecdng, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c danh nh\u00e2n khoa h\u1ecdc, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 hi\u1ebfn d\u00e2ng \u0111\u1eddi m\u00ecnh cho s\u1ef1 nghi\u1ec7p khoa h\u1ecdc, gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c v\u00e0 ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. C\u00e1c quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u \u0111i\u1ec1u th\u00fa v\u1ecb v\u00e0 b\u1ed5 \u00edch v\u1ec1 khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc.<\/p>\n

Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 khoa h\u1ecdc, v\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, ch\u00fang ta gi\u1edd kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y h\u00f4m nay. Xin c\u00e1m \u01a1n t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng anh ch\u1ecb \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecf c\u00f4ng s\u1ee9c tham gia, c\u00e1m \u01a1n c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 t\u00e0i tr\u1ee3, nh\u00e0 xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n, c\u00f4ng ty s\u00e1ch, c\u00e1c d\u1ecbch gi\u1ea3, ng\u01b0\u1eddi hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u00ednh v\u00e0 bi\u00ean t\u1eadp, v\u00e0 c\u00e1m \u01a1n b\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 h\u01b0\u1edfng \u1ee9ng n\u1ed3ng nhi\u1ec7t.<\/p>\n

***<\/p>\n

Ch\u00fang ta h\u00e3y d\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat th\u1eddi gian \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 mi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ea5t x\u01b0a n\u01a1i t\u00ecnh y\u00eau khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 c\u00e1ch t\u01b0 duy l\u00f4gic s\u00e1ng s\u1ee7a b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u b\u00e9n r\u1ec5 v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00f3 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng, \u0111\u1ec3 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, sau bao nhi\u00eau kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n, v\u1ea5t v\u00e3, v\u00e0 qua bao nhi\u00eau b\u00e0n tay ch\u0103m ch\u00fat \u0111\u1ea7y hy sinh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c “ngh\u1ec7 nh\u00e2n khoa h\u1ecdc” t\u00e0i t\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t v\u1ee5 m\u00f9a l\u1edbn: khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n r\u1ea5t \u01b0 th\u00fa v\u1ecb v\u00e0 k\u1ef3 di\u1ec7u r\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecdc. N\u00f3 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ebfn ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u00e0 v\u1eadn m\u1ec7nh c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3 nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i. M\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c s\u1ed1ng m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd \u1edf b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t khi n\u00e0o n\u00f3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng l\u1edbp \u0111\u1ea5t m\u00e0u m\u1ee1 c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc \u1edf b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi l\u00e0m n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng. Thi\u1ebfu ch\u00fang, x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 xanh t\u01b0\u01a1i v\u00e0 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e2y tr\u00e1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. Do \u0111\u00f3, t\u00ecnh <\/em>y\u00eau khoa h\u1ecdc<\/i> \u2013 v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 n\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u2013 l\u00e0 th\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111o<\/em> c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c, hay m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh mu\u1ed1n v\u01b0\u01a1n l\u00ean \u2212 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch khoa h\u1ecdc<\/i>. Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5 l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c v\u01b0\u01a1n l\u00ean nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf r\u1ea5t ngo\u1ea1n m\u1ee5c, sau 1.000 n\u0103m v\u1eafng b\u00f3ng khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a giai \u0111o\u1ea1n \u201c\u0111en t\u1ed1i\u201d t\u1eeb sau s\u1ef1 tan r\u00e3 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf La M\u00e3 v\u00e0 ch\u00e2u \u00c2u b\u1ecb x\u00e2m chi\u1ebfm b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi man di. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 cu\u1ed9c \u201cth\u1ee9c t\u1ec9nh h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt\u201d, m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi \u201cPh\u1ee5c H\u01b0ng\u201d c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng khoa h\u1ecdc Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. Vinh quang c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n h\u00f3a c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf La M\u00e3 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 m\u00f4t k\u00fd \u1ee9c xa v\u1eddi. S\u1ef1 s\u1ee5p \u0111\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf La m\u00e3, s\u1ef1 di d\u00e2n c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi man di v\u00e0o v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c d\u00e2n s\u1ef1 m\u00e0 c\u00f2n ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng v\u0103n h\u00f3a. Sau s\u1ef1 b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng c\u1ee7a Islam, con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn v\u0103n minh Hy L\u1ea1p tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp b\u1ecb c\u1eaft \u0111\u1ee9t. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Kit\u00f4 bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh \u0111ang s\u1ed1ng trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n le l\u00f3i c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i v\u00e0ng son \u0111\u00e3 qua c\u1ee7a v\u0103n h\u00f3a v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt. Di t\u00edch v\u0103n h\u00f3a v\u00e0ng son ch\u1ec9 c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u00ecn gi\u1eef trong c\u00e1c tu vi\u1ec7n, n\u01a1i v\u1eabn c\u00f2n ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng nh\u1eefng tia s\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9. Trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n kh\u00f4ng \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, c\u00e1c tu vi\u1ec7n Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o l\u00e0 n\u01a1i g\u00ecn gi\u1eef v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n ti\u1ebfp h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt. C\u00e1c ng\u01b0\u1eddi cha Nh\u00e0 th\u1edd bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u0103n minh, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n ngo\u1ea1i gi\u00e1o (pagan) m\u00e0 n\u00ean di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i l\u1ea1i v\u00e0 hi\u1ec3u ch\u00fang trong khu\u00f4n kh\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2n l\u00fd Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o. Ch\u00e2u\u00a0\u00c2u c\u0169ng\u00a0\u0111ang\u00a0\u0111\u1ed1i m\u1eb7t v\u1edbi th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o\u00a0\u0111ang ph\u1ed3n vinh, ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, v\u00e0 gi\u00e0u h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt. H\u1ecd l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111ang qu\u1ea3n l\u00fd di s\u1ea3n h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p, c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00fa gi\u1ea3i v\u00e0 b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn (nh\u01b0 Averroes) c\u00f3\u00a0\u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00ean s\u1ef1 khai sang c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u\u00a0\u00c2u s\u1eafp t\u1edbi.<\/p>\n

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\u0110\u1eb1ng sau b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tu vi\u1ec7n ng\u1ecdn l\u1eeda h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt\u00a0v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng t\u1eaft<\/p><\/div>\n

C\u00e1c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Cha nh\u00e0 th\u1edd v\u00ec th\u1ebf t\u1ecf ra h\u1ebft s\u1ee9c quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn tri th\u1ee9c khoa h\u1ecdc, t\u01b0 duy l\u00f4gic, to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc s\u00e1ng s\u1ee7a, kh\u00e1ch quan. \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc trung c\u1ed5 ra \u0111\u1eddi nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed1m l\u1eeda khai s\u00e1ng, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 15 \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ee7 k\u00edn ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. Cu\u1ed9c d\u1ecbch thu\u1eadt v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i ng\u00f3t hai th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 t\u1eeb c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i v\u00e0 th\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p h\u00f3a \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra \u0111\u1ec3 c\u1ee7ng c\u1ed1 v\u1ecb th\u1ebf khoa h\u1ecdc trong gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc. Nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o Aristote v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ed3 s\u1ed9 v\u00e0 bao tr\u00f9m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 Platon, \u0111\u00e3 thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u00e0 th\u1edd. Aristote l\u00e0 mentor, ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ea7y d\u1eabn d\u1eaft, v\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c. B\u00ean c\u1ea1nh Aristote v\u00e0 Plato c\u00f2n c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1t c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u00e1c, nh\u01b0 Galen, Ptolemy, Euclid, Archimedes, ch\u01b0a k\u1ec3 c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 La M\u00e3. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 n\u00e9t \u0111\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e1o m\u00e0 c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh kh\u00e1c kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3. Gi\u1edbi tinh hoa ch\u00e2u \u00c2u trung c\u1ed5 kh\u00f4ng cam ch\u1ecbu s\u1ed1ng trong s\u1ef1 u \u00e1m c\u1ee7a tinh th\u1ea7n. Tinh th\u1ea7n c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng.\u00a0H\u1ecd b\u01b0\u1edbc l\u00ean, v\u00e0 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u00f3 t\u00ednh bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng, v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i pro<\/em> v\u00e0 contra<\/em>. N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng, th\u00ec ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed9c tho\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 nguy c\u01a1 d\u1eabn t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 suy t\u00e0n nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 Trung Hoa. Ph\u00e9p bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n y\u00eau th\u00edch kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, ngay b\u00ean trong t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, s\u1ebd quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1eadn m\u1ec7nh n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh \u0111i v\u1ec1 \u0111\u00e2u. Nh\u01b0ng gi\u1edbi tinh hoa tin v\u00e0o c\u00e1i l\u00fd<\/em> c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh. H\u1ecd c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ea7y, ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u01b0\u1edbng \u0111\u1ea1o v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i t\u1eeb c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i m\u00e0 h\u1ecd bi\u1ebft h\u1ecdc h\u1ecfi nghi\u00eam t\u00fac, \u0111\u1ec3 r\u1ed3i cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y v\u01b0\u1ee3t h\u1ecd lu\u00f4n.<\/p>\n

Th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5, b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 5-10 (\u0111\u1ea7u k\u1ef3), qua \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 11-13 (gi\u1eefa k\u1ef3), cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 14-15 (cu\u1ed1i k\u1ef3), ng\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y, l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ed5i m\u1edbi s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o b\u1eadc nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i. Trong nh\u1eefng s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ed5i m\u1edbi c\u00f3 m\u1eaft k\u00ednh, la b\u00e0n t\u1eeb, \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u1ed3 c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc, s\u00fang, thu\u1ed1c s\u00fang, c\u00e0 n\u00f4ng, v\u00e0 k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt in; l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u00f3 ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng, h\u1ed1i phi\u1ebfu (bill of exchange), s\u00e9c, v\u00e0 b\u1ea3o hi\u1ec3m \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng bi\u1ec3n, c\u00f4ng ty c\u1ed5 ph\u1ea7n, h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng k\u1ebf to\u00e1n k\u00e9p, h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng s\u1ed1 h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, c\u1ed1i xay gi\u00f3, m\u00e1y x\u1ebb g\u1ed7 \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u00f3ng t\u00e0u. H\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng lu\u1eadt ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y ra \u0111\u1eddi. V\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, c\u00f3 \u0110\u1ea1i hi\u1ebfn ch\u01b0\u01a1ng (Magna Carta), qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i Anh, h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ea1i ngh\u1ecb \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. \u00c2m nh\u1ea1c ph\u1ee9c \u00e2m (polyphonic). S\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u1edd G\u00f4tic v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i. S\u1ef1 ra \u0111\u1eddi c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng trung t\u00e2m h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng ch\u00e2n tr\u1eddi c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u \u00c2u: Viking t\u1edbi v\u00f9ng Newfoundland (Canada) n\u0103m 1000; tr\u01b0\u1edbc n\u0103m 1500, Vasco da Gama v\u00e0 Bartholomew Diaz t\u1edbi \u1ea4n \u0111\u1ed9 b\u1eb1ng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng v\u00f2ng qua M\u0169i H\u1ea3o V\u1ecdng, v\u00e0 v\u00e0i n\u0103m sau Christopher Columus \u0111\u1eb7t ch\u00e2n \u0111\u1ebfn T\u00e2n th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng, tr\u00ean h\u1ebft, \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u00fang ta quan t\u00e2m \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y, l\u00e0 ch\u00e2u \u00c2u trung c\u1ed5, l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i, tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i m\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00eau l\u00ean v\u00f4 s\u1ed1 nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi v\u1ec1 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, v\u00e0 t\u00ecm c\u00e1ch tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i b\u1eb1ng m\u00ea t\u00edn, m\u00e0 b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh, b\u1eb1ng ph\u00e2n t\u00edch b\u1eb1ng l\u00f4gic. Kh\u00f4ng \u1edf \u0111\u00e2u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf, c\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng kh\u00ed h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt s\u00f4i n\u1ed5i v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i c\u1edfi m\u1edf nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf. \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u1eb7t n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc cho s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfn l\u00ean c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc cho 500 n\u0103m t\u1edbi. Nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y x\u1ea3y ra trong m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c qu\u1ea3n l\u00fd ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd b\u1edfi nh\u00e0 th\u1edd Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh l\u1ea1i thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p ngo\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ea1o. Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ch\u01b0\u01a1ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00e1c kh\u00f4ng n\u1eb1m trong Kinh th\u00e1nh. T\u00f4n gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc ph\u1ea3i s\u1ed1ng chung, t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e1c v\u00e0 ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a. Nh\u01b0ng cu\u1ed9c ch\u01a1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn nh\u01b0 ti\u00ean \u0111\u1ec1 cho s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n. (E. Grant)<\/p>\n

***<\/p>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi La M\u00e3 tan r\u00e3, ch\u00e2u \u00c2u r\u01a1i v\u00e0o giai \u0111o\u1ea1n \u0111en t\u1ed1i, Boethius (480-525) c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 5\/6, ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1eed t\u00f9 v\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ch\u00ednh kh\u00e1ch cao c\u1ea5p trong gi\u1edbi qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c La M\u00e3 \u0111ang ch\u1edd ch\u1ebft m\u1ed9t n\u0103m v\u00ec b\u1ecb gh\u00e9p v\u00e0o t\u1ed9i m\u01b0u ph\u1ea3n, \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft ra S\u1ef1 an \u1ee7i c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc <\/em>(Consolation of Philosophy), t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng mang t\u00ednh tri\u1ebft l\u00fd Stoic, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 \u00f4ng d\u1ecbch (ra ti\u1ebfng La tinh) v\u00e0 di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i v\u1ec1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m l\u00f4gic h\u1ecdc Categories<\/em> (trong Organon<\/em>) c\u1ee7a Aristote, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 Introduction<\/em> (Isagoge) c\u1ee7a Porphyry, t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m nh\u1eadp m\u00f4n cho Categories<\/em>. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a v\u00e0 v\u1ec1 Aristote \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft \u1edf ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1ec1 l\u00f4gic, v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u00e0 si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1ecbch v\u00e0 ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12 v\u00e0 13. Nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng t\u01b0 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Boethius c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt kinh vi\u1ec7n ra \u0111\u1eddi th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12. Boethius c\u0169ng d\u1ecbch Euclid v\u00e0 Ptolemy ra ti\u1ebfng La tinh c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng lu\u1eadn v\u0103n c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n v\u1ec1 s\u1ed1 h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 \u00e2m nh\u1ea1c, nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh tr\u1ee5 c\u1ed9t trong c\u00e1c tu vi\u1ec7n hay tr\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u00e0 th\u1edd, l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ebf gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c quy c\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, Boethius \u0111\u00e3 \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p ti\u00ean \u0111\u1ec1 h\u00f3a (axiomatization) v\u00e0o th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch nghi\u00eam t\u00fac.\u00a0\u00d4ng ch\u00fa \u00fd l\u00f4gic gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng Alexandria<\/em>, \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u b\u1eb1ng l\u00f4gic. Boethius l\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean qua \u0111\u00f3 l\u00f4gic h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Aristote \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c truy\u1ec1n t\u1edbi c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc trung c\u1ed5 ti\u1ebfng La tinh. Ch\u00ednh \u00f4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi truy\u1ec1n l\u1ea1i ng\u1ecdn l\u1eeda khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt cho th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5. Boethius \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cM\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kinh vi\u1ec7n (scholastics)\u201d.<\/p>\n

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Boethius (480-524)<\/p><\/div>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft \u0111ang ch\u1edd \u0111\u1ee3i, Boethius m\u01b0\u1ee3n Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, m\u00e0 \u00f4ng nh\u00e2n c\u00e1ch h\u00f3a l\u00ean th\u00e0nh Lady Philosophy<\/em>, hay n\u00e0ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i v\u00e0 an \u1ee7i. Ch\u00fang ta h\u00e3y d\u1eebng l\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e2y m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat \u0111\u1ec3 chia s\u1ebb v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng \u01b0u t\u01b0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. N\u00e0ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc an \u1ee7i \u00f4ng r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb oan sai \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed. Socrate \u0111\u00e3 \u0111au kh\u1ed5 \u1edf Athens, Seneca \u1edf Rom. Ch\u00ednh n\u00e0ng c\u0169ng g\u1eb7p kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n. Boethius tr\u00e1ch m\u00f3c \u2018t\u1ea1i sao nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb \u0111\u1ed9c h\u1ea1i l\u1ea1i ph\u00e1t \u0111\u1ea1t?\u2019 \u00d4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd r\u1eb1ng v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c qu\u1ea3n l\u00fd b\u1edfi m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb th\u1ed1ng l\u00e3nh l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa; nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 l\u1ea1i gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i nh\u00e0 m\u00e0 trong \u0111\u00f3 nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i b\u00ecnh v\u00f4 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb th\u00ec \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u0103n l\u00f9ng trong khi nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i b\u00ecnh qu\u00fd gi\u00e1 th\u00ec l\u1ea1i b\u1ecb b\u1ecf qu\u00ean cho m\u01b0a gi\u00f3. N\u00e0ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc l\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng l\u00fd lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb Gorgias<\/em> (nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i gi\u1eefa Socrate v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m sophist) c\u1ee7a Plato \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 ph\u1ed3n vinh c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb \u0111\u1ed9c h\u1ea1i ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 b\u1ec1 ngo\u00e0i. \u00dd mu\u1ed1n l\u00e0m c\u00e1i \u00e1c, t\u1ef1 n\u00f3, l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u b\u1ea5t h\u1ea1nh, v\u00e0 th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea1t m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tai h\u1ecda l\u00e0 t\u1ed3i t\u1ec7 h\u01a1n. M\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ed1t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 khao kh\u00e1t s\u1ef1 th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh, c\u00f2n ng\u01b0\u1eddi x\u1ea5u th\u00ec bi\u1ebfn th\u00e0nh k\u1ebb s\u00fac sinh (beast). V\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t c\u00f3 t\u1eeb may m\u1eafn l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng quan tr\u1ecdng n\u1ebfu so s\u00e1nh v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb b\u00ean trong c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. S\u1ef1 ban t\u1eb7ng c\u1ee7a may m\u1eafn m\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1eadt s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4ng thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 ch\u00fang ta: c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3i r\u1ed3i c\u0169ng s\u1ebd b\u1ecb m\u1ea5t, v\u00e0 ch\u00fang c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb nh\u1ea5t ch\u1ec9 khi n\u00e0o ch\u00fang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho \u0111i. M\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi khoe khoang c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3i v\u00e0 quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t con chu\u1ed9t khoe khoang tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00e1c con chu\u1ed9t kh\u00e1c. T\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac \u1edf s\u1ef1 gi\u00e0u c\u00f3, quy\u1ec1n th\u1ebf hay s\u1ef1 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng, nh\u01b0ng ch\u1ec9 \u1edf t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n qu\u00fd b\u00e1u nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i, b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n t\u00f4i. V\u1eadn may l\u00e0 l\u1eeba d\u1ed1i, v\u00e0 lu\u00f4n lu\u00f4n ch\u1ecbu s\u1ef1 b\u1ea5t \u1ed5n, trong khi v\u1eadn r\u1ee7i \u0111em l\u1ea1i s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1-nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 d\u1ea1y cho con ng\u01b0\u1eddi bi\u1ebft ai l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh, nh\u1eefng t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n qu\u00fd gi\u00e1 nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 lo\u1ea1i gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 tr\u00ean \u0111\u1eddi. M\u01b0\u1ee3n tri\u1ebft l\u00fd c\u1ee7a Platon v\u00e0 Aristote, h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac theo ngh\u0129a ch\u00e2n ch\u00ednh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a l\u1ea1i nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>\n

H\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac (beatitudo) l\u00e0 c\u00e1i t\u1ed1t l\u00e0nh (good) m\u00e0 khi \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec n\u1eefa \u0111\u1ec3 khao kh\u00e1t. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 c\u00e1i cao nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1i t\u1ed1t l\u00e0nh, ch\u1ee9a \u0111\u1ef1ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1i t\u1ed1t l\u00e0nh trong n\u00f3; n\u1ebfu m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i t\u1ed1t l\u00e0nh thi\u1ebfu t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t n\u00e0y, n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 c\u00e1i t\u1ed1t l\u00e0nh cao nh\u1ea5t, v\u00ec c\u00f2n c\u00e1i g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 ham mu\u1ed1n. Cho n\u00ean, h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac (\u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c) l\u00e0 tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 t\u00edch l\u0169y c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i t\u1ed1t l\u00e0nh c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c.<\/p>\n

Cho n\u00ean gi\u00e0u c\u00f3, \u0111\u1ecba v\u1ecb, quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c, v\u00e0 t\u00ean tu\u1ed5i kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n \u0111\u00f3, nh\u1eefng th\u00fa vui c\u1ee7a c\u01a1 th\u1ec3 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng. N\u00e0ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc l\u00fd lu\u1eadn, Ch\u00faa m\u1edbi l\u00e0 c\u00e1i ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o nh\u1ea5t, t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 th\u1ee9 t\u1ed1t tr\u00ean \u0111\u1eddi; cho n\u00ean h\u1ea1nh ph\u00fac \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u1edf Ch\u00faa th\u00f4i.<\/p>\n

Th\u1ebf c\u00f2n \u00fd ch\u00faa (providence) v\u00e0 s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn (fate) th\u00ec sao? Trong th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ng\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb b\u1edfi \u00fd ch\u00faa, th\u00ec s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn c\u00f3 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u ng\u1eabu nhi\u00ean hay kh\u00f4ng? Ch\u00faa c\u00f3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ecdi vi\u1ec7c v\u00e0 s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp kh\u00f4ng? N\u00e0ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc l\u00fd lu\u1eadn, \u00fd ch\u00faa l\u00e0 l\u00fd t\u00ednh th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh n\u1ed1i k\u1ebft l\u1ea1i v\u1edbi nhau t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt, trong khi s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn (hay \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh) l\u00e0 c\u00e1i t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt n\u1eb1m r\u1ea3i r\u00e1c trong kh\u00f4ng gian v\u00e0 th\u1eddi gian, trong m\u1ed9t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh ph\u1ee9c t\u1ea1p. Ch\u00fang ta ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y \u1edf b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t s\u1ef1 l\u1ed9n x\u1ed9n c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadn h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn. Nh\u01b0ng n\u1ebfu ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn s\u00e2u \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y s\u01a1 \u0111\u1ed3 to\u00e0n c\u1ee5c nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf b\u1edfi \u00fd ch\u00faa, ch\u00fang ta s\u1ebd nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i g\u00ec x\u1ea3y ra l\u00e0 x\u1ea3y ra c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng, c\u00e1i g\u00ec t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i l\u00e0 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u00f3 l\u00fd.<\/p>\n

S\u1ef1 ch\u1ecdn l\u1ef1a t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 c\u00e1i g\u00ec kh\u00f3 h\u00f2a h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi \u00fd ch\u00faa, hay v\u1edbi Ch\u00faa, \u0111\u1ea5ng t\u1ed1i cao c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9. \u201cN\u1ebfu Ch\u00faa c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi vi\u1ec7c, v\u00e0 trong m\u1ecdi tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 sai l\u1ea7m, th\u00ec \u0111i\u1ec1u ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u1ea3y ra l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 trong \u00fd ch\u00faa ng\u00e0i nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y l\u00e0 s\u1ebd t\u1edbi.\u201d \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi \u201ch\u00f3c b\u00faa\u201d. C\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi c\u1ee7a n\u00e0ng tri\u1ebft l\u00fd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a ra \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0, c\u0169ng l\u00e0 \u201ch\u00f3c b\u00faa\u201d: Ch\u00faa \u0111\u1ee9ng ngo\u00e0i khung th\u1eddi gian, cho n\u00ean kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00fang n\u1ebfu n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn \u00fd ch\u00faa li\u00ean can d\u1ef1 v\u00e0o tri th\u1ee9c tr\u01b0\u1edbc (foreknowledge<\/em>)\u201d. Tri th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta l\u00e0 gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 tri th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c: ng\u00e0i \u1edf ngo\u00e0i th\u1eddi gian, v\u00e0 c\u00e1i th\u1ea5y c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i th\u1eadt s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i th\u1ea5y tr\u01b0\u1edbc, foreseeing. \u201cC\u00f9ng m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai, n\u1ebfu nh\u00ecn t\u1eeb tri th\u1ee9c th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh, l\u00e0 t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu; nh\u01b0ng n\u1ebfu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem trong b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, th\u00ec n\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n t\u1ef1 do v\u00e0 v\u00f4 \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n\u2026 Ch\u00faa th\u1ea5y nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai, nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i x\u1ea3y ra v\u00ec \u00fd mu\u1ed1n t\u1ef1 do.\u201d (Anthony Kenny) D\u0129 nhi\u00ean, nan\u00a0\u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y ch\u01b0a th\u1ebf k\u1ebft th\u00fac, m\u00e0 l\u00e0\u00a0\u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng cho tranh lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1eddi sau.<\/p>\n

***<\/p>\n

Nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 11, 12, v\u00e0 13, giai \u0111o\u1ea1n ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ed3i ph\u1ee5c kinh t\u1ebf v\u00e0 \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, l\u00e0 th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n l\u00fd t\u00ednh, t\u01b0 duy l\u00f4gic, bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng, v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng di s\u1ea3n khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p v\u00e0 Hy L\u1ea1p H\u00f3a \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb bi\u1ebfn m\u1ea5t ngh\u00ecn n\u0103m. C\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc ra \u0111\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u00e0 truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng khoa h\u1ecdc. C\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean l\u00e0 Bologna, Paris v\u00e0 Oxford. C\u00e1c v\u1ecb cha nh\u00e0 th\u1edd \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng t\u01b0 duy theo l\u00fd t\u00ednh, l\u00f4gic, s\u00e1ng s\u1ee7a l\u00e0 thu\u1ed9c t\u00ednh con ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 Ch\u00faa \u0111\u00e3 ban c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00e2ng niu v\u00e0 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n \u2013 \u0111\u1ec3 x\u1ee9ng \u0111\u00e1ng l\u00e0 con c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa. Cho n\u00ean m\u1edbi hi\u1ec3u b\u1ea3y m\u00f4n ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt nh\u00e2n v\u0103n (septem artes liberates<\/i>) g\u1ed3m c\u00f3 v\u0103n ph\u1ea1m, h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n, bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng hay l\u00f4gic (trivium), v\u00e0 \u00e2m nh\u1ea1c, s\u1ed1 h\u1ecdc, h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, thi\u00ean v\u0103n (quadrivium) trong ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc. Sinh vi\u00ean h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp b\u1eb1ng tranh lu\u1eadn<\/i> trong c\u00e1c x\u00eamina, v\u00e0 thi<\/i> c\u1eed b\u1eb1ng tranh lu\u1eadn<\/i> c\u1ea3 ng\u00e0y, \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng minh r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ef1 l\u1eadp, tr\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00e0nh v\u1ec1 tinh th\u1ea7n. T\u01b0 duy bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1eb7t ra lu\u1eadn \u0111\u1ec1 (thesis), ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ec1 (anti-thesis) v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7p-\u0111\u1ec1 (synthesis), bu\u1ed9c sinh vi\u00ean ph\u1ea3i \u0111i \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng l\u00fd lu\u1eadn. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc m\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc hay tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebfu. B\u1ea3y m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc nh\u00e2n v\u0103n th\u1ef1c ra\u00a0\u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 t\u1eeb th\u1eddi La M\u00e3, m\u00e0 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 l\u00e0 Varro (116-27 tr. CN). \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi\u00a0\u0111\u00e3 bi\u00ean so\u1ea1n m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng 9 m\u00f4n nh\u00e2n v\u0103n, trong\u00a0\u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u00eam y khoa v\u00e0 ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng m\u00f4n sau n\u00e0y b\u1ecb b\u1ecf.<\/p>\n

C\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 qui ch\u1ebf t\u1ef1 qu\u1ea3n, t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7, nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u1eddng (guild). Universitas<\/i> ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a m\u1ed9t t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c (corporation) c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f9ng ngh\u1ec1 nghi\u1ec7p. X\u00e3 h\u1ed9i Trung c\u1ed5 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do \u0111o\u00e0n th\u1ec3 (corporate liberties) v\u00e0 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 quy\u1ec1n l\u1ee3i c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd. Lu\u1eadt La M\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t t\u1ea1i \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Bologna<\/i>, \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 cho m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111ang ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng ph\u1ee9c h\u1ee3p. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 lu\u1eadt, th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi s\u1ebd tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh t\u00f9y ti\u1ec7n, hoang d\u00e3, hay h\u1ed7n lo\u1ea1n. C\u0169ng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc, c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u1eefng qui ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang. Khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 Lu\u1eadt ph\u00e1p l\u00e0 hai \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh m\u1edbi nh\u1eb1m x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi c\u00f3 tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1<\/i>, l\u00f4gic v\u00e0 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ec1 tinh th\u1ea7n c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 v\u1ec1 c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. M\u1ed9t ch\u00e2u \u00c2u man di, b\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1-h\u1ecdc<\/i>, \u0111\u00e3 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n th\u00e0nh trung t\u00e2m m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh m\u1edbi.<\/p>\n

C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i, c\u00e1c th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12 v\u00e0 13 l\u00e0 giai \u0111o\u1ea1n \u201cph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 ti\u1ec1m l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh trung c\u1ed5\u201d. Nhi\u1ec1u h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 v\u1ec1 th\u1eddi n\u00e0y cho r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 n\u00e0y c\u00f2n c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a cho s\u1ef1 h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh c\u00e1c \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng v\u00e0 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ebf ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y l\u1edbn h\u01a1n<\/em> th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c H\u01b0ng \u00dd hay C\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch Tin l\u00e0nh. L\u1ecbch s\u1eed tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c c\u00f3 t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u00e0 t\u1ef1-kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n l\u1edbn l\u00ean v\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00e0nh n\u00e0y. M\u00f4n tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c m\u1edbi l\u00e0 logic, bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng, m\u00e0 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec1u ph\u1ea3i trang b\u1ecb.<\/p>\n

Th\u00e1nh Augustin (Augustin\u00f4 th\u00e0nh Hippo) c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 4 v\u00e0 th\u1ee9 5 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1eebng r\u1ea5t th\u1ea5m nhu\u1ea7n c\u00e1c m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc nh\u00e2n v\u0103n. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc uy\u00ean b\u00e1c, v\u00e0 c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn l\u00ean s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o. Th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 \u00f4ng kh\u00e1 \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng cho t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o. Trong Nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi t\u1ef1 b\u1ea1ch<\/i> (Confessions) \u00f4ng cho bi\u1ebft \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Categories<\/i> (c\u00e1c ph\u1ea1m tr\u00f9) c\u1ee7a Aristote v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ecdc trong th\u1eddi tr\u1ebb t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c s\u00e1ch v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt nh\u00e2n v\u0103n \u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ec1 h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n, l\u00f4gic, h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, s\u1ed1 h\u1ecdc, v\u00e0 \u00e2m nh\u1ea1c. \u00d4ng c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ecbnh vi\u1ebft nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1o tr\u00ecnh cho gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u00e1c m\u00f4n n\u00e0y. Nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u00e2n m\u1ea3nh c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean Hy L\u1ea1p xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n xuy\u00ean qua t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u00f4ng. Tuy d\u00e0i h\u1ea1n, \u00f4ng khuy\u00ean con ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00ean \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u00e1i tim v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 tr\u00ean tr\u1eddi h\u01a1n l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea5t, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn s\u1ef1 h\u1eefu \u00edch c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean trong vi\u1ec7c l\u00e0m s\u00e1ng t\u1ecf, minh h\u1ecda v\u00e0 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch Kinh Th\u00e1nh.\u00a0L\u00fd t\u00ednh l\u00e0 m\u00f3n qu\u00e0 c\u1ee7a th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf, l\u00e0m cho con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi s\u00fac sinh, v\u00e0 c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed dung, vun x\u1edbi. Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u01b0\u1edbc nh\u1ea5t ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ee9c tin, sau \u0111\u00f3 l\u00fd t\u00ednh. L\u00fd t\u00ednh kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebfu n\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ee9c tin c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 v\u00e0 n\u1ed9i dung c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u. C\u00e1c l\u00fd lu\u1eadn d\u1ecb gi\u00e1o \u201cc\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e1nh xa v\u00e0 kinh gh\u00e9t, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i v\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 l\u00fd lu\u1eadn, m\u00e0 b\u1edfi v\u00ec \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 l\u00fd lu\u1eadn sai.\u201d \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Augustin, sau \u0111\u1ee9c tin m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch cao nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 hi\u1ec3u (understanding): \u201cCh\u00faa c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang con\u2026 n\u00f3i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00edn \u0111\u1ed3, \u2018T\u00ecm v\u00e0 s\u1ebd th\u1ea5y [Mattt. 7:7]\u2019. Nh\u01b0ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y n\u00e0y m\u00e0 l\u1ea1i tin r\u1eb1ng kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn tri th\u1ee9c.\u201d Cho n\u00ean \u1edf Augustin, kh\u00f4ng h\u1eb3n l\u00fd t\u00ednh ph\u1ea3i ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ph\u1ee5c t\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ee9c tin nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00f4i khi \u00f4ng nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh. Tuy nhi\u00ean, trong m\u1ed9t \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a Enchiridion<\/em> Augustin t\u1ecf ra r\u1ea5t nghi ng\u1edd v\u1ec1 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. \u201cN\u1ebfu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecfi ch\u00fang t\u00f4i ph\u1ea3i tin \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec trong nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec7n t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, c\u00e2u tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm trong s\u1ef1 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt theo c\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u2018nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd l\u00e0m.\u2019\u201d Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, kh\u00f4ng sao. H\u1ecd ch\u1ec9 c\u1ea7n hi\u1ec3u r\u1eb1ng \u201cc\u1ed9i ngu\u1ed3n (cause) c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi v\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra, d\u00f9 tr\u00ean tr\u1eddi hay d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea5t, d\u00f9 th\u1ea5y\u00a0\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hay kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y, kh\u00f4ng g\u00ec kh\u00e1c h\u01a1n l\u00e0 \u0110\u1ea5ng s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o, l\u00e0 Ch\u00faa \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c.\u201d Tuy th\u1ebf, \u00f4ng c\u0169ng s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u1ec3 minh h\u1ecda th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, nh\u01b0 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y (D. C. Lindberg):<\/p>\n

\u201cNh\u01b0ng kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 n\u00e0y (c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i nh\u00ecn, vision) l\u00e0 \u00c1nh s\u00e1ng qua \u0111\u00f3 linh h\u1ed3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c soi s\u00e1ng, \u0111\u1ec3 cho linh h\u1ed3n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y v\u00e0 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c m\u1ecdi v\u1eadt, ho\u1eb7c trong t\u1ef1 n\u00f3, ho\u1eb7c trong \u00c1nh s\u00e1ng. V\u00ec \u00c1nh s\u00e1ng ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 Ch\u00faa, trong khi linh h\u1ed3n l\u00e0 sinh v\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra (creature)\u2026 V\u00e0 n\u1ebfu n\u00f3 c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng nh\u00ecn ng\u1eafm \u00c1nh s\u00e1ng, n\u00f3 run r\u1ea9y trong s\u1ef1 y\u1ebfu \u0111u\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 th\u1ea5y m\u00ecnh kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. Nh\u01b0ng t\u1eeb ngu\u1ed3n n\u00e0y xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft m\u00e0 n\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c.\u201d<\/p>\n

Augustin c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0a ra c\u00e1i g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cc\u00e1c nguy\u00ean l\u00fd gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 h\u1ea1t\u201d (seedlike principles) c\u1ee7a tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Stoic \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u00f2a kh\u00e1i ni\u1ec7m Ch\u00faa \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ecdi v\u1eadt ngay t\u1eeb ban \u0111\u1ea7u v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n quan s\u00e1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u1ea1ng t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t trong sinh h\u1ecdc sau nh\u1eefng ng\u00e0y s\u00e1ng th\u1ebf.\u00a0\u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 c\u00e2u n\u00f3i b\u1ea5t h\u1ee7 v\u1ec1 th\u1eddi gian: Th\u1eddi gian l\u00e0 g\u00ec v\u1eady? N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng ai h\u1ecfi t\u00f4i, t\u00f4i bi\u1ebft n\u00f3 l\u00e0 g\u00ec. Nh\u01b0ng n\u1ebfu t\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n c\u1eaft ngh\u0129a n\u00f3 khi c\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ecfi, th\u00ec t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft.<\/p>\n

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Th\u00e1nh Augustin hay Augustin\u00f4 th\u00e0nh Hippo<\/p><\/div>\n

Sau Augustin c\u00f3 Gerbert x\u1ee9 Aurillac (946-1003), m\u1ed9t h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 r\u1ea5t uy\u00ean b\u00e1c. \u00d4ng tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh Gi\u00e1o Ho\u00e0ng Sylvester II (999-1003) v\u00e0 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3y m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc nh\u00e2n v\u0103n \u1edf tr\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u00e0 th\u1edd l\u1edbn Rheims, Ph\u00e1p. \u00d4ng c\u00f3 ti\u1ebfng ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9 l\u00f4gic hay bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng, v\u00e0 c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean ch\u00fa \u00fd \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Boethius v\u1ec1 l\u00f4gic. C\u00e1c h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 \u00f4ng truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 t\u00ecnh y\u00eau h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y v\u00e0 do \u0111\u00f3, l\u00f4gic l\u00e0 m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n trong c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u00e0 th\u1edd c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. \u1ede nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12 v\u00e0 13, n\u00f3 b\u00e1m r\u1ec5 s\u00e2u v\u00e0o ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u00e0 th\u1edd l\u1edbn v\u00e0 sau \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. T\u1ea1i sao n\u00f3 l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c y\u00eau th\u00edch \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf? B\u1edfi v\u00ec \u201cn\u00f3 m\u1edf ra c\u00e1nh c\u1eeda s\u1ed5 v\u00e0o m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i nh\u00ecn tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1<\/i> v\u00e0 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng<\/i> c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u00e0 c\u1ee7a tinh th\u1ea7n con ng\u01b0\u1eddi\u201d, v\u00e0o l\u00fac m\u00e0 cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c \u0111ang \u1edf m\u1ee9c th\u1ea5p.<\/p>\n

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc Gerbert c\u00f3 John Scotus Eriugena cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 9, m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia v\u00e0 nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc \u00c1i Nh\u0129 Lan, t\u1eebng ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 Vua Charles the Bald c\u1ee7a Ph\u00e1p, vi\u1ebft trong m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m quan tr\u1ecdng c\u00f3 t\u00ean On the Division of Nature<\/i> (V\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a T\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean):<\/p>\n

B\u1ecfi v\u00ec quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c, nh\u01b0ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn kh\u00f4ng ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c. B\u1edfi v\u00ec, quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c n\u00e0o kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00e2ng \u0111\u1ee1 b\u1eb1ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c th\u00ec quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu \u1edbt, trong khi l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u00ecn gi\u1eef v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc v\u00e0 b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn b\u1eb1ng s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh n\u00f3, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 \u0111i l\u00ean c\u1ee7a quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c n\u00e0o. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u00f4i, quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c kh\u00f4ng g\u00ec kh\u00e1c h\u01a1n l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 b\u1edfi s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh, v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft xu\u1ed1ng b\u1edfi c\u00e1c cha nh\u00e0 th\u1edd cho \u0111\u1eddi sau s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng.<\/p>\n

\u00d4ng \u0111\u1eb7t quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 tu\u00e2n th\u1ee7 l\u00fd t\u00ednh. Cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 8, vua Charlemagne, ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean, v\u00e0 cai tr\u1ecb \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf La M\u00e3 th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh, ra s\u1eafc l\u1ec7nh c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u1edd v\u00e0 tu vi\u1ec7n ph\u1ea3i thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp v\u00e0 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c con trai. \u00d4ng chi\u00eau d\u1ee5 c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 trong gi\u1edbi t\u0103ng l\u1eef v\u1ec1 cung \u0111i\u1ec7n ho\u00e0ng gia \u1edf Aachen. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y, tr\u01b0\u1eddng cung c\u1ea5p gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c trong b\u1ea3y m\u00f4n ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt nh\u00e2n v\u0103n, v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00ean c\u00e1c m\u00f4n v\u0103n ph\u1ea1m, l\u00f4gic v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 ch\u00ednh. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c h\u01b0ng Carolingian th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 9. Ti\u1ebfp theo, n\u0103m 1079, \u0110\u1ee9c gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0ng Gregory VI ban s\u1eafc l\u1ec7nh cho c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u1edd l\u1edbn v\u00e0 tu vi\u1ec7n ph\u1ea3i l\u1eadp tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c v\u00e0 hu\u1ea5n luy\u1ec7n tu s\u0129. \u0110\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 11, c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Paris, Orleans, Toledo, Rheims, Chartres, Cologne v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 kh\u00e1c \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc nh\u00e0 th\u1edd, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c trung t\u00e2m tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c cho c\u1ea3 gi\u1edbi t\u0103ng l\u1eef v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ngo\u00e0i, tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 l\u1edbn sinh vi\u00ean h\u00e1o h\u1ee9c c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e0o t\u1ea1o v\u00e0 s\u1eb5n s\u00e0ng ch\u1ecbu c\u1ef1c \u0111i xa.<\/p>\n

Hugh (Hugo) c\u1ee7a St. Victor, m\u1ed9t tr\u01b0\u1eddng d\u00f2ng quan tr\u1ecdng \u1edf Paris, c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ec1 ngh\u1ecb gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c t\u00e1o b\u1ea1o, r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i h\u1ecdc th\u1ebf t\u1ee5c, t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean, l\u00e0 n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft cho s\u1ef1 thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o ti\u00ean ti\u1ebfn. \u201cH\u00e3y h\u1ecdc t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 \u0111i\u201d, Hugh tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1, \u201csau n\u00e0y b\u1ea1n s\u1ebd th\u1ea5y kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec l\u00e0 th\u1eeba th\u00e3i h\u1ebft.\u201d M\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3y m\u00f4n ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt nh\u00e2n v\u0103n, n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc trung c\u1ed5, l\u00e0 nh\u1eb1m \u201ct\u00e1i t\u1ea1o h\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh Ch\u00faa trong ch\u00fang ta.\u201d<\/p>\n

\u00dd t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i l\u1ea1i trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12 \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m cho s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u1ea3 d\u0129 l\u00e0 \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch duy l\u00fd \u1edf d\u1ea1ng ch\u1ee9ng minh<\/em> (demonstrative) h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c hay h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc. Ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ch\u1ee9ng minh m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n (fact) c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c suy di\u1ec5n t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t nguy\u00ean l\u00fd t\u1ed5ng qu\u00e1t h\u01a1n. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1edd l\u00f4gic h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Aristote v\u00e0 to\u00e1n c\u1ee7a Hy l\u1ea1p v\u00e0 \u1ea2 r\u1eadp. \u00dd t\u01b0\u1edfng ch\u1ee9ng minh to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc qua t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m C\u00e1c c\u01a1 s\u1edf h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc<\/em> c\u1ee7a Euclid l\u00e0 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy l\u1ea1p trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed khoa h\u1ecdc, v\u00e0 n\u00f3 l\u00e0 c\u01a1 s\u1edf kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p cho to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n cho v\u1eadt l\u00fd h\u1ecdc hay thi\u00ean v\u0103n, quang h\u1ecdc, hay c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 c\u1ee7a sinh h\u1ecdc, v\u00e0 y khoa. Xu h\u01b0\u1edbng tinh th\u1ea7n l\u00e0 quan ni\u1ec7m, \u1edf \u0111\u00e2u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3, xem khoa h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c c\u1ee7a suy lu\u1eadn t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng nguy\u00ean l\u00fd \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u00f3 t\u00ednh hi\u1ec5n nhi\u00ean nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9ng minh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c (t\u1ee9c ti\u00ean \u0111\u1ec1, theo tinh th\u1ea7n ti\u00ean \u0111\u1ec1 h\u00f3a c\u1ee7a Euclid). (A. C. Crombie)<\/p>\n

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Peter Abelard (1079-1142), ng\u01b0\u1eddi “hi\u1ec7p s\u0129” c\u1ee7a logic h\u1ecdc<\/p><\/div>\n

Trong nh\u1eefng h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 truy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 l\u00f4gic, Peter Abelard \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem nh\u01b0 nh\u00e0 l\u00f4gic h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi duy l\u00fd l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12, v\u00e0 m\u00e3i m\u00e3i b\u1ea5t t\u1eed v\u00ec m\u1ed1i t\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ea7y k\u1ecbch t\u00ednh v\u1edbi n\u00e0ng Heloise. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi mu\u1ed1n \u0111i t\u00ecm nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c b\u1eb1ng l\u00f4gic v\u00e0 ph\u00e9p bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng: \u201cB\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch nghi ng\u1edd, ch\u00fang ta \u0111i \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u1eb7t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi, v\u00e0 b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi, ch\u00fang ta nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00e2n l\u00fd.\u201d\u00a0T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a Abelard l\u00e0 Sic et Non<\/em> (\u0110\u00fang v\u00e0 Kh\u00f4ng) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1121\/22. Quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch nh\u1eb1m \u0111\u00e1nh th\u1ee9c con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ra kh\u1ecfi gi\u1ea5c ng\u1ee7 gi\u00e1o \u0111i\u1ec1u. Ph\u00e9p bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng, b\u00ean c\u1ea1nh Kinh Th\u00e1nh, l\u00e0 c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 duy nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, d\u1eb9p b\u1ecf c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ki\u1ebfn, v\u00e0 khuy\u1ebfn kh\u00edch con ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng l\u00fd tr\u00ed m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft s\u1ee3 h\u00e3i. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec ngo\u00e0i Th\u00e1nh Kinh l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 sai, \u00f4ng n\u00f3i. Ngay c\u00e1c t\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed3 v\u00e0 c\u00e1c cha nh\u00e0 th\u1edd c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 sai. Abelard sinh n\u0103m 1079 t\u1ea1i Nantes. V\u1edbi 34 tu\u1ed5i, n\u0103m 1113, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ea7y v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng \u1edf Paris. Tu\u1ed5i tr\u1ebb y\u00eau th\u00edch s\u1ef1 s\u1eafc b\u00e9n, s\u1ef1 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng chuy\u00ean nghi\u00eap ph\u00e9p bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng, v\u00e0 th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 kh\u00f4ng s\u1ee3 h\u00e3i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. \u00d4ng li\u00ean ti\u1ebfp b\u1ecb h\u1ea1i, b\u1ecb bi\u1ec7t x\u1ee9, v\u00e0 k\u1ebft \u00e1n hai l\u1ea7n cho \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00fac \u00f4ng m\u1ea5t. H\u00e0i c\u1ed1t c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u00e0 Heloise cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c mai t\u00e1ng chung b\u00ean nhau t\u1ea1i ngh\u0129a trang P\u00e8re Lachaise, Paris.\u00a0\u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi\u00a0\u0111\u1eddi th\u01b0\u1eddng Abelard n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u00ec m\u1ed1i t\u00ecnh bi th\u1ea3m v\u1edbi Heloise,\u00a0\u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi l\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc,\u00a0\u00f4ng c\u00f3 v\u1ecb tr\u00ed quan tr\u1ecdng v\u00ec nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p cho l\u00f4gic v\u00e0 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt kinh vi\u1ec7n.<\/p>\n

S\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c D\u00f2ng tu<\/i> trong c\u00e1c tu vi\u1ec7n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng quan tr\u1ecdng trong s\u1ef1 h\u1ed3i sinh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t c\u00e1c d\u00f2ng Phanxic\u00f4 v\u00e0 Dominic (\u0110a Minh) l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng d\u00f2ng s\u1ed1ng kh\u1eafc kh\u1ed5, kh\u1ea5t th\u1ef1c. H\u1ecd ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng, nh\u01b0 D\u00f2ng Benedict (Bi\u1ec3n \u0110\u1ee9c) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u1ea5m g\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, v\u1eeba tu, v\u1eeba h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u1ecdc s\u00e1ch, (vita contemplativa<\/i>), nh\u01b0ng c\u0169ng tham gia v\u00e0o lao \u0111\u1ed9ng tay ch\u00e2n (vita activa<\/i>). Hai d\u00f2ng tu n\u00e0y c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng tu s\u0129 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1ec1 tinh th\u1ea7n khoa h\u1ecdc, nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c th\u00e1nh Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas c\u1ee7a d\u00f2ng Bi\u1ec3n \u0110\u1ee9c, v\u00e0 Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon v\u00e0 William x\u1ee9 Ockham c\u1ee7a d\u00f2ng Phanxic\u00f4. H\u1ecd l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc. Grosseteste v\u00e0 Bacon (h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a Grosseteste) \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh \u0111\u1ebfn vai tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc trong khoa h\u1ecdc, \u0111i\u1ec1u s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n tr\u00ean qui m\u00f4 l\u1edbn \u1edf th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 16 v\u00e0 17 \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o n\u00ean khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i<\/i>. (V\u1ec1 Grosseteste xem th\u00eam N\u0103m qu\u1ed1c t\u1ebf \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng 2015<\/i><\/a>)<\/p>\n

Ngo\u00e0i b\u1ea3y m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc nh\u00e2n v\u0103n, Hugh c\u1ee7a St. Victor, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12, c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o b\u1ea3y m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc<\/i> (septem artes mecanicae<\/i>) g\u1ed3m k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt d\u1ec7t, r\u00e8n, luy\u1ec7n kim, x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng, l\u00e1i t\u00e0u, n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p, s\u0103n b\u1eafn, k\u1ecbch ngh\u1ec7 v\u00e0 ch\u1eefa b\u1ec7nh. Khoa h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Ch\u00faa ban cho con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0m nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ec3 chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu \u0111u\u1ed1i m\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 m\u1eafc ph\u1ea3i t\u1eeb c\u00e1i t\u1ed9i truy\u1ec1n ki\u1ebfp n\u0103m x\u01b0a. V\u1edbi khoa h\u1ecdc l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 v\u00f4 minh; v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng khoa h\u1ecdc \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i b\u1ea5t b\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb3ng v\u00e0 gi\u00fap nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi y\u1ebfu th\u1ebf b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 m\u00ecnh.<\/p>\n

Trong l\u00f2ng Nh\u00e0 th\u1edd trung c\u1ed5, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o ch\u1ed1i-t\u1eeb-th\u1ebf-gi\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hun \u0111\u00fac b\u1edfi Augustin v\u00e0 d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean Platon b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u nh\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u1ed7 cho m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn kh\u00e1c m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u0103n b\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i, uy\u1ec3n chuy\u1ec3n h\u01a1n, l\u00fd t\u00ednh h\u01a1n. S\u1ef1 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ec3 xem x\u00e9t v\u00e0 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 c\u00e1c t\u00edn \u0111i\u1ec1u c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9c tin, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c khai th\u00e1c b\u1edfi Anselm, t\u1ed5ng gi\u00e1m m\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a Canterbury trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 11, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc l\u00f4gic, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u00e0 bi\u1ec7n ch\u1ee9ng h\u1ecdc b\u1ed1c l\u1eeda Abelard c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, \u0111\u00e3 nhanh ch\u00f3ng ti\u1ebfn l\u00ean trong l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c v\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc. Kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i c\u00e1c ch\u00e2n l\u00fd Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o b\u1ecb \u0111\u1eb7t v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1, m\u00e0 c\u00e1c ch\u00e2n l\u00fd \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n t\u00edch \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft th\u1ea5u \u0111\u00e1o h\u01a1n. Nh\u01b0 Anselm ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u, \u201cD\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u00f4i, s\u1ebd l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 khinh su\u1ea5t, n\u1ebfu sau khi \u0111\u00e3 v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc trong \u0111\u1ee9c tin, ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ea5u hi\u1ec3u nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ch\u00fang ta tin.\u201d<\/p>\n

M\u1ed1i quan t\u00e2m ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc trung c\u1ed5 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 n\u1ed1i li\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ee9c tin v\u00e0 l\u00fd t\u00ednh, m\u1ed9t \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1ea5t hay, \u0111\u1ec3 cho c\u00e1c ch\u00e2n l\u00fd kh\u1ea3i huy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thuy\u1ebft minh v\u00e0 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 gi\u00fap \u0111\u1ee1 c\u1ee7a ph\u00e2n t\u00edch l\u00fd t\u00ednh. Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc do \u0111\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 c\u00f4 h\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 l\u00fd t\u00ednh l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9c tin. L\u00fd t\u00ednh do \u0111\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i ph\u1ee5c t\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ee9c tin. Nh\u01b0ng v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a Aristote, v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1eadt l\u00fd, l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a m\u1edbi r\u1ed9ng h\u01a1n: L\u00fd t\u00ednh kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 l\u00f4gic, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0, \u0111\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, s\u1ef1 quan s\u00e1t th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m n\u1eefa. V\u1edbi mi\u1ebfng \u0111\u1ea5t ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng l\u1edbn, s\u1ef1 c\u0103ng th\u1eb3ng gi\u1eefa \u0111\u1ee9c tin v\u00e0 l\u00fd t\u00ednh c\u0169ng s\u1ebd t\u0103ng theo.<\/p>\n

Albertus Magnus l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng trung c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean l\u00e0m s\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t gi\u1eefa tri th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c suy ra t\u1eeb th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri th\u1ee9c t\u1eeb khoa h\u1ecdc. Nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 chuy\u00ean gia trong nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ee9c tin, trong khi trong nh\u1eefng v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 th\u1ebf t\u1ee5c, nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft h\u01a1n. V\u00e0 \u00f4ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean quan s\u00e1t th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m. D\u01b0\u1edbi c\u00e1i nh\u00ecn n\u00e0y, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Aristote \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n c\u1ea3m h\u1ee9ng Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o.\u00a0Albertus t\u1eebng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eb7ng cho c\u00e1i danh hi\u1ec7u \u201cth\u00e1nh \u0111\u1ee1 \u0111\u1ea7u\u201d cho khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb t\u1ef1 n\u00f3, Aristote kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean \u0111\u00e1ng s\u1ee3, l\u00fd t\u00ednh v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9c tin s\u1ebd h\u00e0i h\u00f2a nhau trong tri th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 Ch\u00faa.<\/p>\n

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Thomas Aquinas hay T\u00f4ma Aquin\u00f4 (1225-1274)<\/p><\/div>\n

Thomas Aquinas ti\u1ebfp n\u1ed1i c\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c c\u1ee7a Albertus, nh\u01b0ng h\u01a1n ai h\u1ebft l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c l\u00e0m m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c \u201c\u0111i\u1ec1u h\u00f2a\u201d \u1ea5n t\u1ef1\u1ee3ng gi\u1eefa tri th\u1ee9c con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9c tin. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Summa Theologiae<\/em> (T\u1ed5ng lu\u1eadn th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc) nh\u1eb1m h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Aristote v\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc Kit\u00f4, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch ch\u1ec9 nam quan tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5, v\u00e0\u00a0\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c\u00a0\u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 l\u00e0 “m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec3n kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a l\u1ecbch s\u1eed tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a v\u0103n h\u1ecdc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y”. Aquinas thu\u1ed9c gia \u0111\u00ecnh qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c nh\u01b0ng s\u1edbm t\u1eeb b\u1ecf h\u1ebft \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng cao sang \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh tu s\u0129 v\u00e0 gia nh\u1eadp D\u00f2ng \u0110a Minh kh\u1ed5 h\u1ea1nh, b\u1ecb gia \u0111\u00ecnh b\u1eaft v\u1ec1, r\u1ed3i l\u1ea1i tr\u1ed1n tho\u00e1t \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n ti\u1ebfng g\u1ecdi t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o trong \u00f4ng. Aquinas ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9 Albertus Magnus l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a Aristote \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 v\u00e0o ch\u00e2u \u00c2u Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ebfn Cologne \u0111\u1ec3 h\u1ecdc Albertus. Aquinas mu\u1ed1n bi\u1ebfn Aristote th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Kit\u00f4, v\u00e0 mu\u1ed1n l\u00e0m cho ranh gi\u1edbi gi\u1eefa ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Aristote v\u00e0 C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o bi\u1ebfn m\u1ea5t. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Aquinas, Ch\u00faa kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 M\u00f4 th\u1ee9c (Form) t\u1ed1i cao t\u1ea1o ra th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u0103n b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Aquinas \u0111\u00e3 \u0111em l\u1ea1i cho s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u00e1i h\u1ed3n: \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 Ch\u00faa. C\u00e1i h\u1ed3n c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 m\u00f4 th\u1ee9c, m\u00e0 th\u00e2n th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t. C\u1ea3 hai li\u00ean k\u1ebft ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd v\u1edbi nhau. Aquinas tr\u00edch d\u1eabn th\u00e1nh Phaol\u00f4: \u201cnh\u1eefng v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y r\u00f5\u2026. b\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Ch\u00faa l\u00e0m ra.\u201d Nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i c\u00f3 t\u00ednh th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh kh\u00f4ng nh\u00ecn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn qua th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m, qua quan s\u00e1t c\u00e1i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7c th\u00f9. B\u1eb1ng tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m c\u00e1i \u0111\u1eb7c th\u00f9 qua gi\u00e1c quan, tinh th\u1ea7n con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 di chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1i ph\u1ed5 qu\u00e1t, \u0111i\u1ec1u l\u00e0m cho c\u00e1i \u0111\u1eb7c th\u00f9 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. Aquinas tin r\u1eb1ng tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp c\u00e1c \u00dd t\u01b0\u1edfng (Ideas) si\u00eau nghi\u1ec7m, nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 \u0111\u00f2i h\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 tr\u1ea3i nghi\u1ec7m b\u1eb1ng gi\u00e1c quan \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e1nh th\u1ee9c tri th\u1ee9c ti\u1ec1m t\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i ph\u1ed5 qu\u00e1t. Hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu (to-be) l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 tham d\u1ef1 v\u00e0o t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i (existence), v\u00e0 v\u00ec t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i t\u1ef1 n\u00f3 l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ban t\u1eb7ng c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa. Cho n\u00ean m\u1ecdi s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c t\u1ea1i \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb th\u1ef1c t\u1ea1i v\u00f4 t\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa. Do \u0111\u00f3, b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng tri th\u1ee9c, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh c\u00e0ng gi\u1ed1ng Ch\u00faa, v\u00e0 gi\u1ed1ng Ch\u00faa l\u00e0 m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch t\u1ed1i h\u1eadu mong \u0111\u1ee3i c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Aquinas tin r\u1eb1ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e0 t\u1ef1 do c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb t\u1ef1 ch\u00fang, v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n ch\u00fang s\u1ebd ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 cho s\u1ef1 vinh danh Ch\u00faa. S\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7 \u00fd ch\u00ed v\u00e0 tri th\u1ee9c con ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ebd kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n b\u1edfi quy\u1ec1n n\u0103ng v\u00f4 h\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa, v\u00e0 c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i g\u00ec \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u0110\u1ea5ng s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o. \u0110\u00fang h\u01a1n, nh\u1eefng ph\u1ea9m ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c trong b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa, b\u1edfi v\u00ec con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra theo h\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa. Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e9p h\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec1n n\u0103ng tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 v\u00e0 \u00fd ch\u00ed \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1ef1ng theo m\u00f4 h\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa. Cho n\u00ean \u0111\u1ea5u tranh cho t\u1ef1 do con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e0 cho s\u1ef1 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n \u00fd mu\u1ed1n th\u00e1nh linh. Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa, v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7 t\u1ed1i cao c\u1ee7a Ng\u00e0i cho ph\u00e9p con ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi th\u1ee9 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ef1 do. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, ch\u1ec9 khi con ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ef1 do \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c, th\u00ec con ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1edbi c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng y\u00eau Ch\u00faa m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ef1 do, m\u1edbi nh\u1eadn ra m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ef1 do s\u1ef1 v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i tinh th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a Ng\u00e0i. K\u1ebft lu\u1eadn: n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1eadt l\u00fd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ec7n h\u1ed9 b\u1eb1ng \u00fd ngh\u0129a t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o s\u00e2u s\u1eafc: Con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2n l\u00fd l\u00e0 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a Th\u00e1nh Linh. (R. Tarnas)\u00a0\u0110\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng g\u00ec kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 d\u1ecdn \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng cho nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ch\u00ednh danh<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Sau Albertus v\u00e0 Aquinas, tri th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1edfi tr\u00f3i \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i t\u1edbi. Hai \u00f4ng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi nh\u00ecn-v\u1ec1-ph\u00eda-tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00f3 \u00fd th\u1ee9c. Hai \u00f4ng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a Robert Grosseteste (1175-1253), c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc. H\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a Grosseteste l\u00e0 Roger Bacon (1214-94) l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng khoa h\u1ecdc l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5. Bacon d\u1ea1y h\u1ecdc \u1edf Paris v\u00e0 Oxford. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 b\u00e1ch khoa th\u01b0. Bacon kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m, c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ea7y \u00f4ng Grossesteste, nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y r\u00f5, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 l\u1eafm l\u1eddi. Th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng s\u1ebd l\u00ean ng\u00f4i trong nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 t\u1edbi v\u00e0o th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c H\u01b0ng v\u00e0 sau \u0111\u00f3.<\/p>\n

Trong c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u tri th\u1ee9c th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5, c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i c\u00f3 \u00fd ngh\u0129a v\u1ec1 th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u01b0\u1edbc th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e2n \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5 xem th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u00e2n kh\u1ea5u h\u1ed7n \u0111\u1ed9n, huy\u1ec1n b\u00ed, kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, c\u1ee7a m\u1ecdi \u0111au kh\u1ed5, t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t c\u1ea7n n\u00ean tr\u00e1nh v\u00e0 tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1edbi Ch\u00faa. Nh\u01b0ng v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12 v\u00e0 13, m\u1ed9t b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn \u0111\u00e3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean v\u1edbi con m\u1eaft kh\u00e1c, t\u00edch c\u1ef1c h\u01a1n. H\u1ecd nh\u00ecn th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u00f3 tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa, ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng theo nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ecbnh lu\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1eadp ra m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch thi\u00eang li\u00eang, v\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a ma qu\u1ef7.<\/p>\n

Cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12, ch\u00e2u \u00c2u Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n h\u01a1n \u0110\u1ebf Ch\u1ebf La M\u00e3, v\u1ec1 c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 (h\u00e3y xem c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 th\u1edd G\u00f4tic v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i), c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 v\u1ec1 h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt, nh\u1eefng th\u1ee9 m\u00e0 ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 th\u1eeba h\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1eeb Hy L\u1ea1p, La M\u00e3 v\u00e0 c\u1ea3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o. Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o l\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3m t\u01b0 duy l\u00f4gic v\u00e0 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng. Cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 19, nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Nietzsche v\u1eabn c\u00f2n nh\u1eafc nh\u1edf g\u00ecn gi\u1eef n\u00e9t \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t n\u00e0y:<\/p>\n

Cho n\u00ean tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc ph\u1ea3i lo\u1ea1i b\u1ecf t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec kh\u00f4ng th\u00edch h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi c\u00e1c thao t\u00e1c n\u00e0y, th\u00ed d\u1ee5 nh\u01b0 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o. N\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i d\u1ef1 tr\u00f9 r\u1eb1ng sau n\u00e0y s\u1ef1 m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, th\u00f3i quen v\u00e0 ham mu\u1ed1n s\u1ebd l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m \u0111i kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng t\u01b0 duy ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd. Tuy nhi\u00ean bao l\u00e2u \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 c\u00f2n cho ph\u00e9p, tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i d\u1ea1y cho \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111i\u1ec1u c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n v\u00e0 tr\u1ed9i b\u1eadt \u1edf con ng\u01b0\u1eddi sau \u0111\u00e2y: \u2039L\u00fd t\u00ednh v\u00e0 Khoa h\u1ecdc, nh\u01b0 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng tri th\u1ee9c cao nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi\u203a nh\u01b0 \u00edt nh\u1ea5t Goethe nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh. \u2013 Nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean von Baer nh\u1eadn th\u1ea5y t\u00ednh \u01b0u vi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00e2u \u00c2u so v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00e2u \u00c1 v\u1ec1 n\u0103ng l\u1ef1c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u1edf nh\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1eddng, r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eefng l\u00fd l\u1ebd \u0111\u1ec3 bi\u1ec7n minh cho \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u1ecd tin, trong khi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kia ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng. Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ea3i qua tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a t\u01b0 duy l\u00f4gic v\u00e0 c\u00f3 t\u00ednh ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n, trong khi ch\u00e2u \u00c1 v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1eefa S\u1ef1 th\u1eadt v\u00e0 Thi ca, v\u00e0 ch\u01b0a \u00fd th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ni\u1ec1m tin c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh c\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 t\u1eeb s\u1ef1 quan s\u00e1t ri\u00eang v\u00e0 c\u00e1ch t\u01b0 duy \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn, hay l\u00e0 t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u01a1 h\u1ed3 c\u1ea3m t\u00ednh (fantasy). L\u00fd t\u00ednh trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m cho ch\u00e2u \u00c2u tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ch\u00e2u \u00c2u: trong th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5 n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 nguy c\u01a1 bi\u1ebfn th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t m\u1ea3nh \u0111\u1ea5t v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u \u00c1 \u2013 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 m\u1ea5t m\u00e1t tinh th\u1ea7n khoa h\u1ecdc m\u00e0 n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p. (Xem Tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a L\u00fd t\u00ednh<\/i><\/a>)<\/p>\n

***<\/p>\n

Khoa h\u1ecdc d\u00f9 mu\u1ed1n t\u00e1ch ra kh\u1ecfi t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o nh\u01b0 th\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ef1 do ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. S\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 g\u1eafn b\u00f3 v\u1edbi s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, v\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i l\u1edbn l\u00ean trong \u0111\u00f3. C\u00e1c v\u1ecb cha nh\u00e0 th\u1edd, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c nh\u1ea5t, ngay t\u1eeb \u0111\u1ea7u ch\u1ec9 mu\u1ed1n khoa h\u1ecdc ph\u1ee5ng s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ee9c tin, l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ea7u g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc. Khoa h\u1ecdc kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c theo \u0111u\u1ed5i cho m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, nh\u01b0ng l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u00fap \u00edch cho s\u1ef1 di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i Kinh Th\u00e1nh. Th\u00e1nh Bonaventure (1221-1274) vi\u1ebft c\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft cho r\u1eb1ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 m\u1ecdi ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt (arts), t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c ng\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c, \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ea7u g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc, nh\u1eb1m c\u1ee7ng c\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ee9c tin v\u00e0 vinh danh Ch\u00faa. Hai th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u00f4ng, th\u00e1nh Peter Damian c\u0169ng cho r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i c\u00f3 hai m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch: \u0111em l\u1ea1i cho ch\u00fang ta s\u1ef1 thi\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t t\u00e2m linh kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u00fang ta y\u00eau v\u00e0 t\u00f4 \u0111i\u1ec3m th\u00eam cho Ch\u00faa. C\u00e1c m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc trong quadrivium<\/em> gi\u00fap \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch n\u00e0y. T\u1ee9c l\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc th\u1ebf t\u1ee5c ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ecbu quy ch\u1ebf c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ea7u g\u00e1i, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i.<\/p>\n

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Aristote (382-322 tr. CN)<\/p><\/div>\n

Aristote c\u00f3 l\u1ebd g\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1eb7t quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y cho \u0111\u1ebfn cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 16. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 t\u1ea5m g\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng, khoa h\u1ecdc, chi li v\u00e0 trung th\u1ef1c ch\u01b0a t\u1eebng c\u00f3. B\u00ean c\u1ea1nh nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u1ec1 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, si\u00eau h\u00ecnh h\u1ecdc, l\u00f4gic h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ecdc, m\u1ef9 h\u1ecdc, t\u00e2m l\u00fd h\u1ecdc, ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb h\u1ecdc, ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef h\u1ecdc, h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n, \u00e2m nh\u1ea1c\u2026 \u00f4ng c\u00f2n l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 quan s\u00e1t t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean r\u1ea5t nghi\u00eam t\u00fac v\u00e0 \u0111am m\u00ea, t\u1eeb v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 cho \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c sinh v\u1eadt, v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u1eadt l\u00fd, sinh h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt h\u1ecdc, l\u00e0m th\u00e0nh h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng to\u00e0n di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng sau l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 l\u1eadp l\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5m g\u01b0\u01a1ng \u00f4ng, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng t\u00ean tu\u1ed5i v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u01b0 Linaeus, Alexander von Humboldt, Darwin. Aristote l\u00e0 bi\u1ec3u t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a tinh th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c v\u00e0 to\u00e0n di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y. Aristote l\u00e0 h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a Plato \u1edf Academy, v\u00e0 th\u1ea7y c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta n\u00f3i l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 \u201ck\u1ebft h\u1ee3p c\u1ee7a c\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea7u m\u1ea1nh nh\u1ea5t v\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1ea1nh nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i\u201d. Sau m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian d\u00e0i v\u1eafng m\u1eb7t, n\u0103m 335 Aristote quay l\u1ea1i qu\u00ea nh\u00e0 Stagira v\u00e0 th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp tr\u01b0\u1eddng Lyceum, tr\u01b0\u1eddng t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi Academy c\u1ee7a Plato. Ch\u00ednh \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m hi\u1ec7n c\u00f2n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i. Alexander m\u1ea5t n\u0103m 323, v\u00e0 n\u0103m sau, tr\u01b0\u1edbc s\u1ef1 b\u00e0i b\u00e1c Macedon l\u00e0 qu\u00ea h\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a Alexander, \u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ed1n qua Chalcis tr\u00ean m\u1ed9t h\u00f2n \u0111\u1ea3o c\u1ee7a Euboea, n\u01a1i \u00f4ng m\u1ea5t c\u00f9ng n\u0103m. D\u1ef1a tr\u00ean nhi\u1ec1u ngu\u1ed3n th\u00f4ng tin v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u00f2n v\u00e0 m\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi, c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u \u0111o\u00e1n r\u1eb1ng Aristote \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i vi\u1ebft t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 200 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m. Nh\u01b0ng c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u ch\u1ec9 t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o 30 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn l\u00e0 \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c do \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft. Ph\u1ea3i n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng nh\u1edd Aristote v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ed3 s\u1ed9, \u0111a d\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng m\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tinh th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 m\u1edbi th\u00e2m nh\u1eadp v\u00e0o ch\u00e2u \u00c2u Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y v\u00e0 bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt. Th\u1eadt kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ebf n\u00e0o v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n khoa h\u1ecdc n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 Aristote.<\/p>\n

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Platon (tr\u00e1i), Aristote (ph\u1ea3i), t\u1eeb b\u1ee9c tranh t\u01b0\u1eddng Tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc Athens<\/i> c\u1ee7a Raphael<\/p><\/div>\n

Organon<\/em> (c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5) l\u00e0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m quan tr\u1ecdng v\u1ec1 l\u00f4gic c\u1ee7a Aristote, g\u1ed3m 6 t\u1eadp Categories, Prior Analytics, De Interpretatione, Posterior Analytics, Sophistical Refutation,<\/em> v\u00e0 Topics<\/em>, \u0111\u00e3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn l\u00ean c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng trung c\u1ed5 v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ed1ng l\u0129nh l\u00fd lu\u1eadn khoa h\u1ecdc h\u01a1n 2000 n\u0103m qua. [\u0110\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 17, Francis Bacon \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m The New Organon<\/em>, m\u01b0\u1ee3n t\u00ean Organon<\/em>, \u0111\u1ec3 qu\u1ea3ng b\u00e1 cho ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean m\u1edbi c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng.] Tuy Plato v\u00e0 Socrate b\u00e0n nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 l\u00f4gic, nh\u01b0ng Aristote l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng h\u00f3a vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u m\u00f4n n\u00e0y cho \u0111\u1eddi sau. Ph\u00e9p suy di\u1ec5n quan tr\u1ecdng l\u00e0 tam \u0111o\u1ea1n lu\u1eadn<\/em> (syllogism): T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef \u0111\u1ec1u ch\u1ebft. Cleopatra l\u00e0 ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef. V\u1eady Cleopatra s\u1ebd ch\u1ebft.<\/p>\n

Charles Darwin, sau khi nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u01b0 qu\u00e0 t\u1eb7ng t\u1eeb Dr. William Ogle b\u1ea3n d\u1ecbch c\u1ee7a Parts of Animals<\/em> (C\u00e1c ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt) c\u1ee7a Aristote, \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eedi m\u1ed9t l\u00e1 th\u01b0 c\u1ea3m \u01a1n \u0111\u1ebfn Ogle v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y 22 th\u00e1ng 2 n\u0103m 1882: \u201c\u00d4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00f4i c\u00e1m \u01a1n \u00f4ng v\u1ec1 ni\u1ec1m vui m\u00e0 quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Aristote \u0111\u00e3 \u0111em l\u1ea1i cho t\u00f4i qua s\u1ef1 gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng\u201d. R\u1ed3i Darwin vi\u1ebft ti\u1ebfp:<\/p>\n

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\u201cT\u00f4i hi\u1ebfm khi \u0111\u1ecdc c\u00e1i g\u00ec g\u00e2y s\u1ef1 quan t\u00e2m t\u00f4i l\u1edbn h\u01a1n (nh\u01b0 quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Aristote), d\u00f9 t\u00f4i ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ecdc h\u01a1n m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n t\u01b0 quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch.
\nT\u1eeb nh\u1eefng tr\u00edch d\u1eabn m\u00e0 t\u00f4i th\u1ea5y, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 cao v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng lao c\u1ee7a Aristote, nh\u01b0ng t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng ng\u1edd \u00f4ng \u1ea5y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t con ng\u01b0\u1eddi tuy\u1ec7t v\u1eddi l\u00e0m sao. Linaeus v\u00e0 Cuvier l\u00e0 hai v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng c\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c kh\u00e1c nhau, nh\u01b0ng h\u1ecd ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u1eadu h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng Aristote gi\u00e0 th\u00f4i.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

Nh\u01b0ng t\u00ecnh h\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ed5i kh\u00e1c v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 12 v\u00e0 13, khi b\u1ed9 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ed3 s\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Aristote l\u1ea7n l\u01b0\u1ee3t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1ecbch sang ti\u1ebfng La tinh. T\u1eeb 1200 \u0111\u1ebfn kho\u1ea3ng gi\u1eefa th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 17, t\u1ee9c 450 n\u0103m, c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u1ec1u nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh vi\u1ec7c h\u1ecdc l\u00f4gic v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Aristote. Nh\u1eefng n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c c\u1ea5m \u0111o\u00e1n Aristote trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 13 \u0111\u1ec1u v\u00f4 hi\u1ec7u. H\u1ec7 qu\u1ea3 l\u00e0 gi\u1edbi th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc b\u1ecb chia r\u1ebd, m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i, m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 Aristote. V\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t ph\u00e1i \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 kh\u00f4ng ai kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 Thomas Aquinas. Tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc bao g\u1ed3m khoa h\u1ecdc th\u1ebf t\u1ee5c kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 m\u00e2u thu\u1ea9n v\u1edbi th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc hay \u0111\u1ee9c tin. Siger \u1edf Brabant, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9ng c\u00f9ng ph\u00eda v\u1edbi Aquinas, hay Boethius \u1edf Dacia, cho r\u1eb1ng tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean c\u1ee7a Aristote l\u00e0 ch\u00eca kh\u00f3a kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u v\u0169 tr\u1ee5, v\u00e0 n\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp v\u1edbi th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc, b\u1eb1ng ho\u1eb7c h\u01a1n. Kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf, m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p quan tr\u1ecdng cho khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc. (E. Grant)<\/p>\n

\u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, \u0111\u1ee9c tin th\u00f4i ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ee7. C\u00e1c c\u1ea5m \u0111o\u00e1n, k\u1ebft \u00e1n, nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c k\u1ebft\u00a0\u00e1n (condemnation) 1210, 1270, 1277, hay c\u1ea3 tr\u1eebng ph\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng ng\u0103n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u00f3c t\u00f2 m\u00f2, tinh th\u1ea7n kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1, v\u00e0 l\u00f2ng d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m. Khoa h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 n\u00f3 c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c c\u00e1m d\u1ed7, m\u00ea ho\u1eb7c, v\u00e0 thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 \u00f3c kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1, t\u00f2 m\u00f2. Khoa h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 khai s\u00e1ng, l\u00e0 gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng con ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 thi\u1ebfu hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft. Khoa h\u1ecdc c\u0169ng tr\u00e1nh cho Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o kh\u1ecfi hi\u1ec3m h\u1ecda m\u00ea t\u00edn t\u1eeb chi\u00eam tinh h\u1ecdc m\u00e0 c\u00e1c cha nh\u00e0 th\u1edd r\u1ea5t \u00fd th\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 nguy c\u01a1. T\u00f2a th\u00e1nh La M\u00e3 th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c H\u01b0ng tuy c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ph\u1ea1m nh\u1eefng sai l\u1ea7m nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng khi r\u01a1i v\u00e0o ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a gi\u00e1o \u0111i\u1ec1u Aristote v\u00e0 truy b\u1ee9c nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc ti\u1ebfn b\u1ed9, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 k\u00ecm h\u00e3m m\u00e3i c\u00e1c h\u1ea1t gi\u1ed1ng khoa h\u1ecdc v\u01b0\u01a1n l\u00ean. Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00e2u \u00c2u b\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p m\u1ecdi kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n, can \u0111\u1ea3m ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c khai ph\u00e1 \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1eafng l\u1ee3i trong cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i \u1edf th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 17 \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi c\u00f3 khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u01b0 ng\u00e0y nay. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh d\u00e0i \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111au kh\u1ed5, nh\u01b0ng r\u1ea5t vinh quang, m\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c ch\u00e2u \u00c2u Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o m\u1edbi c\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. H\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 t\u1ef1 do, m\u00e0 h\u1ecd gi\u00e0nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ef1 do. V\u1edbi Newton, khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n gi\u1ea3i ph\u00f3ng kh\u1ecfi l\u00f2ng nh\u00e0 th\u1edd, tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi m\u1ecdi s\u1ef1 tr\u00f3i bu\u1ed9c, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ef1c th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp t\u1ef1 n\u00f3, v\u00e0 t\u1eeb cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 17 tr\u1edf \u0111i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n t\u1ef1 do, ngang b\u1eb1ng ho\u1eb7c h\u01a1n t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o. Khoa h\u1ecdc c\u0169ng l\u00e0 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa, n\u00f3i theo Augustin. Con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng khoa h\u1ecdc c\u0169ng l\u00e0 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a Th\u00e1nh Linh, n\u00f3i theo Aquinas.<\/p>\n

Sau Albertus v\u00e0 Aquinas, tri th\u1ee9c v\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1edfi tr\u00f3i \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i l\u00ean. Hai \u00f4ng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi nh\u00ecn-v\u1ec1-ph\u00eda-tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00f3 \u00fd th\u1ee9c. Hai \u00f4ng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a Robert Grosseteste (1175-1253), c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc. H\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a Grosseteste l\u00e0 Roger Bacon (1214-94) l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng khoa h\u1ecdc l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5. Bacon d\u1ea1y h\u1ecdc \u1edf Paris v\u00e0 Oxford. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 b\u00e1ch khoa th\u01b0. Bacon kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m, c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ea7y \u00f4ng Grossesteste, nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y r\u00f5, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 l\u1eafm l\u1eddi. Th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0 \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng s\u1ebd l\u00ean ng\u00f4i trong nh\u1eefng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 t\u1edbi v\u00e0o th\u1eddi Ph\u1ee5c H\u01b0ng v\u00e0 sau \u0111\u00f3. Francis Bacon\u00a0\u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 17 s\u1ebd gi\u01b0\u01a1ng cao ti\u1ebfp ng\u1ecdn c\u1edd th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m trong nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u khoa h\u1ecdc, trong khi Galilei l\u00e0m c\u1ea3 hai: th\u1ef1c nghi\u1ec7m v\u00e0\u00a0\u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc.<\/p>\n

Nh\u01b0ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c h\u01a1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u0103ng khi Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o sinh v\u00e0o th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u1ea7y ch\u1ea5t l\u00fd t\u00ednh \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n s\u00e1u tr\u0103m n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3? C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c h\u01a1n ch\u0103ng khi s\u1ef1 \u201cthai ngh\u00e9n\u201d cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng sinh n\u1edf m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ee9a con c\u00f3 t\u00ean khoa h\u1ecdc? Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf kh\u00f4ng ai t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u1ed5i cu\u1ed9c ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a c\u1ee7a s\u1ef1 s\u1ed1ng chung gi\u1eefa t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc. Ch\u00fang ta nh\u1edb r\u1eb1ng, tri th\u1ee9c ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd l\u00e0 l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o. Nh\u00e0 th\u1edd ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh quan t\u00e2m t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 qu\u1ea3n tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a ch\u00faa trong t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec7n v\u1ec1 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng. N\u00f3 c\u00f3 t\u00ednh ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb h\u01a1n l\u00e0 t\u00ednh tr\u00ed th\u1ee9c. Ch\u00faa Jesus ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc. Th\u00e1nh Phanxic\u00f4 ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd c\u00f3 ch\u1ed7 \u0111\u1ee9ng cho n\u00f3. H\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt, ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a kinh vi\u1ec7n, c\u1ea3 Augustin\u00f4, ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng g\u00ec trong \u00f4ng, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng chuy\u1ec7n \u0111\u1eddi th\u01b0\u1eddng, chi\u1ebfn tranh, d\u1ecb gi\u00e1o, hay tham nh\u0169ng c\u1ee7a h\u00e0ng gi\u00e1o s\u0129. \u00d4ng s\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 h\u1ed3n nhi\u00ean v\u00e0 vui t\u01b0\u01a1i c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9a tr\u1ebb. \u00d4ng s\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ec3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ee9c tin Kit\u00f4, \u0111em Kinh Th\u00e1nh \u0111\u1ebfn ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u01b0\u1eddng.<\/p>\n

Kh\u00f4ng thi\u1ebfu nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb cha nh\u00e0 th\u1edd \u0111\u00e3 c\u01b0\u1ee1ng l\u1ea1i tr\u00e0o l\u01b0u h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt \u0111ang di\u1ec5n ra, ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 th\u00e1nh Bernard \u1edf Clairvaux (1019-1153), ng\u01b0\u1eddi truy \u0111u\u1ed5i Alebard cho \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00f9ng: \u201cPeter Abelard \u0111ang n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m m\u1ea5t \u0111i gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ee9c tin Kit\u00f4 khi \u00f4ng ta t\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1eb1ng l\u00fd t\u00ednh con ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 v\u1ec1 Ch\u00faa. \u00d4ng ta \u0111i l\u00ean tr\u1eddi r\u1ed3i xu\u1ed1ng v\u1ef1c s\u00e2u! Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u1ea5u k\u00edn \u00f4ng, trong chi\u1ec1u s\u00e2u c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ecba ng\u1ee5c, hay \u1edf tr\u00ean cao! Con ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i trong m\u1eaft anh ta \u2013 k\u1ebb \u0111i soi b\u00f3i Ch\u00faa v\u00e0 s\u1ea3n sinh ra nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u d\u1ecb gi\u00e1o.\u201d Bernard l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ea7n b\u00ed, \u0111i t\u00ecm Ch\u00faa b\u1eb1ng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a tr\u1ef1c gi\u00e1c v\u00e0 vision. Nh\u01b0ng r\u1ed3i th\u00e1nh T\u00f4ma th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 13 l\u00e0m r\u00f5 r\u1eb1ng con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh, d\u00f9 \u0111\u1ea7y nguy hi\u1ec3m, s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1edbi Ch\u00faa ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn nh\u01b0 c\u1ea3m gi\u00e1c c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ea7n b\u00ed, v\u00e0 r\u1eb1ng t\u1ef1 n\u00f3 c\u00f3 ni\u1ec1m vui kh\u00f3 so s\u00e1nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. T\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng kinh vi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a T\u00f4ma, tuy th\u1ebf, nh\u00ecn chung, v\u1eabn l\u00e0 c\u00e1i g\u00ec c\u00f2n xa l\u1ea1 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi tr\u00e1i tim c\u1ee7a Trung c\u1ed5. H\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb \u00f3c t\u00f2 m\u00f2 c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y, v\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00e0nh trong m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh khai s\u00e1ng, tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp t\u1ef1 n\u00f3 m\u00e0 nh\u00e0 th\u1edd t\u00ecm c\u00e1ch n\u1eafn l\u1ea1i v\u00e0 l\u00e0m cho n\u00f3 th\u00edch h\u1ee3p v\u00e0o khu\u00f4n kh\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. T\u1eeb Abelard \u0111\u1ebfn T\u00f4ma, h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt kinh vi\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e3 v\u01b0\u1ee3t kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 t\u1ed5ng h\u1ee3p trung c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1eb7t ch\u00e2n \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, v\u00e0 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng Aristote-T\u00f4ma c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai. (J. H. Randall, Jr.) Nh\u00e0 th\u1edd\u00a0\u0111\u00e3 “ti\u1ebfp qu\u1ea3n” Aristote l\u00e0m cho n\u00f3 h\u00e0i h\u00f2a v\u1edbi Kinh th\u00e1nh, l\u00e0m cho Aristote tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t “ng\u01b0\u1eddi Kit\u00f4”, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 th\u00e1nh Augustin\u00f4\u00a0\u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c s\u00e1t nh\u1eadp ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a T\u00e2n Platon v\u00e0o Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o sau khi ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb mai m\u1ed9t b\u1edfi c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Hypatia (379-415), nh\u00e0 n\u1eef to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc v\u00e0 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u tr\u01b0\u1eddng t\u00e2n Platon \u1edf Alexandria cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 t\u01b0. Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a T\u00e2n Platon c\u00f3\u00a0\u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng ng\u1ea7m r\u1ea5t l\u1edbn l\u00ean nh\u00e0 th\u1edd Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o trong giai\u00a0\u0111o\u1ea1n\u00a0\u0111\u1ea7u. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Timaeus<\/em> c\u1ee7a Platon v\u1ec1 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1eadt l\u00fd v\u00e0 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh s\u00e1ch gi\u00e1o khoa, v\u00ec quan ni\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 v\u1ec1 v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5ng sang t\u1ea1o r\u1ea5t g\u1ea7n g\u1ee7i v\u1edbi quan ni\u1ec7m c\u1ee7a Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o. Tuy th\u1ebf con\u00a0\u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a l\u00fd t\u00ednh\u00a0\u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra kh\u00f4ng theo\u00a0\u00fd mu\u1ed1n ch\u1ee7 quan c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 th\u1edd.<\/p>\n

Cho n\u00ean, s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng nhi\u00ean, hay t\u1ea5t y\u1ebfu, m\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 k\u1ef3 di\u1ec7u<\/i> m\u00e0 c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh kh\u00e1c nh\u01b0 Trung Hoa, H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o, hay \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec3m r\u1ebd gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n h\u00f3a l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. Trong Ph\u00ea ph\u00e1n tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc thu\u1ea7n t\u00fay,<\/i> Kant c\u00f3 l\u1eddi b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng khoa h\u1ecdc, r\u1eb1ng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c quan ni\u1ec7m v\u00e0 ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng b\u1edfi Galileo v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u201cm\u1ed9t \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng m\u1edbi v\u1ee5t chi\u1ebfu l\u00ean t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 sinh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean\u201d, v\u00e0 \u201cvi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 b\u01b0\u1edbc l\u00ean con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc, sau khi nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng l\u00e0m g\u00ec h\u01a1n l\u00e0 m\u00f2 m\u1eabm trong b\u00f3ng t\u1ed1i.\u201d Nh\u01b0ng khoa h\u1ecdc n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 \u2013 d\u00f9 ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ea3i qua nhi\u1ec1u th\u1eed th\u00e1ch cam go \u2212 n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a th\u1eddi trung c\u1ed5 ph\u00e1t xu\u1ea5t t\u1eeb c\u00e1c tu vi\u1ec7n, tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc nh\u00e0 th\u1edd, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc, v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 g\u00f3p s\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c tu s\u0129 t\u00ean tu\u1ed5i m\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 trong \u0111\u00f3 t\u1eebng b\u1ecb xem l\u00e0 d\u1ecb gi\u00e1o.<\/p>\n

Cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 13, trong khi h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o \u0111ang ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n cao, th\u00ec h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o, sau th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i v\u00e0ng s\u00e1ng ch\u00f3i k\u00e9o d\u00e0i nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7, l\u1ea1i suy t\u00e0n. Cu\u1ed9c d\u1ecbch thu\u1eadt kh\u1ed1i t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n tinh th\u1ea7n kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 t\u1eeb ti\u1ebfng \u1ea2 r\u1eadp v\u00e0 Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u00e3 xong. H\u1ecdc vi\u1ec7c c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 xong. Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o \u0111ang tr\u00ean \u0111\u00e0 v\u01b0\u01a1n l\u00ean, v\u00e0 h\u01b0\u1edfng tr\u1ecdn quy\u1ec1n b\u00e1 ch\u1ee7 v\u1ec1 tinh th\u1ea7n v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3. Trung t\u00e2m l\u1ea5p l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt n\u1eb1m\u00a0\u1edf ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y, v\u00e0 n\u00f3 v\u1eabn nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf cho \u0111\u1ebfn h\u00f4m nay. Khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a ph\u00eda \u0110\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u \u00c2u l\u1ea7n l\u1ea7n \u0111i v\u00e0o qu\u00ean l\u00e3ng. Nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea2 r\u1eadp, Do Th\u00e1i v\u00e0 Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t v\u00e0 h\u00f2a tan v\u00e0o khoa h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y. N\u1ebfu Platon n\u00f3i \u201cT\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng g\u00ec ch\u00fang t\u00f4i nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, ch\u00fang t\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1u c\u1ea3i ti\u1ebfn v\u00e0 l\u00e0m cho ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o\u201d th\u00ec gi\u1edd \u0111\u00e2y \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng \u0111\u00fang cho th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ch\u00e2u \u00c2u.<\/p>\n

Nh\u00ecn to\u00e0n b\u1ed9, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 chia ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh th\u1eddi gian ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a khoa h\u1ecdc nh\u01b0 sau (C. Singer):<\/p>\n

1. Th\u1eddi nh\u1eefng \u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng (600-400 tr. CN): Ionia, Magna Graecia v\u00e0 Athens
\n2. C\u00e1c h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn ra \u0111\u1eddi (400-300 tr. CN): Athens. Platon, Aristote, Stoics v\u00e0 Epicurians
\n3. S\u1ef1 chi tay gi\u1eefa khoa h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc (300-200 tr. CN): Alexandria
\n4. Khoa h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ea7u g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a Th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh (50 tr. CN-400 s. CN): La M\u00e3
\n5. Th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5 (400-1400): S\u1ef1 ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt l\u1ea7n th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t. Th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c m\u00f4n khoa h\u1ecdc; khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00e2ng c\u1ea5p l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi h\u1ea7u g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc.
\n6. Ph\u1ee5c H\u01b0ng, hay s\u1ef1 ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i h\u1ecdc thu\u1eadt l\u1ea7n hai: S\u1ef1 h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a nh\u00e2n v\u0103n, humanism (1250-1600). M\u1ed9t n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c l\u1edbn h\u01a1n tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 C\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u1ebf t\u1ee5c ph\u00e1t huy s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh.
\n7. Th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 n\u1ed5i d\u1eady (1600-1700): S\u1ef1 suy t\u00e0n c\u1ee7a ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Aristote. N\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng t\u1ed5ng h\u1ee3p m\u1edbi.
\n8. Khoa h\u1ecdc hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng. V\u1edbi Newton, th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi c\u01a1 h\u1ecdc ra \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0 “chi\u1ebfm di\u1ec5n \u0111\u00e0n th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi (1700-1900).<\/p>\n

\u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 cu\u1ed9c h\u00e0nh tr\u00ecnh k\u1ef3 th\u00fa kh\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a tri th\u1ee9c. T\u1eeb Th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa<\/em> (City of God) c\u1ee7a Th\u00e1nh Augustin\u00f4 th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 n\u0103m, con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 ti\u1ebfn h\u00f3a v\u00e0 thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp c\u00e1c Th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a Tri th\u1ee9c<\/em> (City of Intellect) c\u1ee7a Clark Kerr, c\u00e1c\u00a0\u0110a\u00a0\u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc (Multiversity) kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 c\u1ee7a M\u1ef9 th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 20.<\/p>\n

***<\/p>\n

N\u00f3i ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng ngh\u0129 \u0111\u1ebfn ta. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Vi\u1ec7t Nam c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng h\u1ea1t gi\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a t\u00ecnh y\u00eau khoa h\u1ecdc, t\u01b0 duy l\u00f4gic s\u00e1ng s\u1ee7a b\u00ean trong hay kh\u00f4ng? Ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 con m\u1eaft quan s\u00e1t s\u1ef1 v\u1eadt v\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c hay kh\u00f4ng? V\u00e0 c\u00f3 tr\u00e1i tim \u0111\u1ec3 ng\u01b0\u1ee1ng m\u1ed9 khoa h\u1ecdc hay kh\u00f4ng? D\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 ch\u01b0a c\u00f3 ch\u1ee9ng c\u1ee9 r\u00f5 r\u1ec7t l\u1eafm. Ch\u00fang ta hi\u1ec7n \u0111ang n\u00f3i nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng 4.0, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng \u0111\u00e3 qua. Kh\u00f4ng th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 kh\u00e1c m\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi t\u1eebng \u0111i qua nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng b\u1eadc thang kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 thi\u1ebfu trong s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, t\u1eeb h\u01a1i n\u01b0\u1edbc, c\u01a1 kh\u00ed, xe l\u1eeda, \u00f4 t\u00f4, transistor, chip v\u00e2n v\u00e2n, ch\u00fang ta li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m g\u00ec \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1edbi cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng m\u1edbi? Ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ec3nh m\u1ea3ng, xem th\u01b0\u1eddng khoa h\u1ecdc trong vi\u1ec7c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc. Khoa h\u1ecdc l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u1ed7 h\u1ed5ng v\u0103n h\u00f3a trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed Vi\u1ec7t Nam. Tuy th\u1ebf, d\u00f9 v\u1edbi xu\u1ea5t x\u1ee9 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed kh\u00f4ng thu\u1eadn l\u1ee3i th\u1ebf n\u00e0o, ng\u00e0y nay m\u1ed7i qu\u1ed1c gia \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed5i \u0111\u1eddi khi gi\u1edbi tinh hoa c\u00f3 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c \u0111\u00fang \u0111\u1eafn v\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng ki\u00ean quy\u1ebft. D\u00e2n t\u1ed9c H\u00e0n l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec3n h\u00ecnh r\u00f5 nh\u1ea5t cho ch\u00fang ta. H\u1ecd xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb con s\u1ed1 kh\u00f4ng, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed t\u1eeb s\u1ed1 \u00e2m sau cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn Nam B\u1eafc. Nh\u01b0ng h\u1ecd c\u00f3 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o c\u00f3 t\u1ea7m nh\u00ecn, kh\u00f4n ngoan, v\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng ki\u00ean quy\u1ebft, n\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ee9t ph\u00e1 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch th\u1ea7n k\u1ef3 ch\u1ec9 trong v\u00f2ng ba th\u1eadp ni\u00ean, trong khi ch\u00fang ta v\u1eabn \u00ec \u1ea1ch h\u01a1n ba th\u1eadp nhi\u00ean m\u00e0 v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a th\u1ea5y l\u1ed1i ra. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00e0o l\u00e0nh m\u1ea1nh h\u01a1n b\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 t\u00ecnh y\u00eau khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng khoa h\u1ecdc v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc, s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng kh\u00e1c g\u00ec ng\u1ecdn \u0111\u00e8n tr\u01b0\u1edbc gi\u00f3. M\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 s\u1ee9c s\u1ed1ng m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd v\u00e0 sinh \u0111\u1ed9ng tr\u00ean b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t khi n\u00e0o n\u00f3 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng l\u1edbp \u0111\u1ea5t m\u00e0u m\u1edf khoa h\u1ecdc \u1edf b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi l\u00e0m n\u1ec1n. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ch\u00fang, x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 xanh t\u01b0\u01a1i v\u00e0 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e2y tr\u00e1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. Ch\u00fang ta ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t Vi\u1ec7t Nam hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n, ph\u1ed3n vinh, tr\u00ean vai nhi\u1ec1u t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp \u0111\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea3o ng\u01b0\u1eddi, n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 c\u1ea3 d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c, bi\u1ebft y\u00eau khoa h\u1ecdc, y\u00eau ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, c\u00f3 tinh th\u1ea7n tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m, long y\u00eau n\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0 l\u00fd t\u01b0\u1edfng cao, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ec9 \u1edf ngo\u00e0i da, m\u00e0 \u0111\u00edch th\u1ef1c \u1edf t\u1eadn t\u00e2m can. Nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch d\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y mu\u1ed1n g\u00f3p m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat ph\u1ea7n v\u00e0o t\u00ecnh y\u00eau \u0111\u00f3.\/.<\/p>\n

NXX<\/p>\n

(Th\u00e1ng 11, 2017)<\/p>\n

Xem th\u00eam:<\/span><\/p>\n

  NH\u1eeeNG QUY\u1ec2N S\u00c1CH MU\u1ed0N \u201cG\u1eecI H\u01af\u01a0NG CHO GI\u00d3\u201d Nguy\u1ec5n Xu\u00e2n Xanh   Ch\u00fang ta sinh ra l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng sinh v\u1eadt c\u00f3 l\u00fd t\u00ednh. John Locke L\u1eddi n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ea7u. D\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch m\u00e0 t\u00f4i \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 can d\u1ef1 d\u01b0\u1edbi c\u00e1c h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9 kh\u00e1c nhau, nh\u01b0 bi\u00ean so\u1ea1n, d\u1ecbch, ch\u1ee7 tr\u00ec, \u0111\u1ed3ng<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_mi_skip_tracking":false,"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/833"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=833"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/833\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6061,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/833\/revisions\/6061"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=833"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=833"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rosetta.vn\/nguyenxuanxanh\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=833"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}

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